GERMANY。
  Popular　philosophy　flatters　our　ordinary　consciousness；　makes　it　the　ultimate　standard。　Although
  with　Spinoza　we　begin　with　pre…supposed　definitions；　the　content　is　still　profoundly　speculative　in
  nature；　and　it　is　not　derived　from　the　ordinary　consciousness。　In　Spinoza　thinking　is　not　merely　the
  form；　for　the　content　belongs　to　thinking　itself；　it　is　the　content　of　thought　in　itself。　In　the　speculative
  content　the　instinct　of　reason　satisfies　itself　on　its　own　account；　because　this　content；　as　a　totality
  which　integrates　itself　within　itself；　at　once　in　itself　justifies　itself　to　thought。　The　content　in　Spinoza
  is　only　without　ground　in　so　far　as　it　has　no　external　ground；　but　is　a　ground　in　itself。　But　if　the
  content　is　finite；　a　demand　for　an　external　ground　is　indicated；　since　in　such　a　case　we　desire　to
  have　a　ground　other　than　this　finite。　In　its　matter　the　philosophy　of　Wolff　is　indeed　a　popular
  philosophy；　even　if　in　form　it　still　makes　thought　authoritative。　Until　the　time　of　Kant　the　philosophy
  of　Wolff　was　thus　pre…eminent；　Baumgarten；　Crusius；　and　Moses　Mendelssohn　worked　each　of
  them　independently　on　the　same　lines　as　Wolff；　the　philosophy　of　the　last…mentioned　was　popular
  and　graceful　in　form。　The　Wolffian　philosophy　was　thus　carried　on；　although　it　had　cast　off　its
  pedantic　methods：　no　further　progress　was　however　made。　The　question　dealt　with　was　how
  perfection　could　be　attained　…　what　it　is　possible　to　think　and　what　not；　metaphysic　was　reduced　to
  its　slightest　consistency　and　to　its　completest　vacuity；　so　that　in　its　texture　not　a　single　thread
  remained　secure。　Mendelssohn　considered　himself；　and　was　considered；　the　greatest　of
  philosophers；　and　was　lauded　as　such　by　his　friends。　In　his　〃Morgenstunden〃　we　really　find　a　dry
  Wolffian　philosophy；　however　much　these　gentlemen　endeavoured　to　give　their　dull　abstractions　a
  bright　Platonic　form。
  The　forms　of　Philosophy　which　we　have　considered　bear　the　character　which　pertains　specially　to
  metaphysics；　of　proceeding　from　general　determinations　of　the　understanding；　but　of　combining
  therewith　experience　and　observation；　or　the　empiric　method　in　general。　One　side　of　this
  metaphysic　is　that　the　opposites　of　thought　are　brought　into　consciousness；　and　that　attention　is
  directed　upon　the　solution　of　this　contradiction。　Thought　and　Being　or　extension；　God　and　the
  world；　good　and　evil；　the　power　and　prescience　of　God　on　the　one　side；　and　the　evil　in　the　world
  and　human　freedom　on　the　other：　these　contradictions；　the　opposites　of　soul　and　spirit；　things
  conceived　and　things　material；　and　their　mutual　relation；　have　occupied　all　men's　attention。　The
  solution　of　these　opposites　and　contradictions　has　still　to　be　given；　and　God　is　set　forth　as　the　One
  in　whom　all　these　contradictions　are　solved。　This　is　what　is　common　to　all　these　philosophies　as　far
  as　their　main　elements　are　concerned。　Yet　we　must　likewise　remark　that　these　contradictions　are
  not　solved　in　themselves；　i。e。　that　the　nullity　of　the　supposition　is　not　demonstrated　in　itself；　and
  thereby　a　true　concrete　solution　has　not　come　to　pass。　Even　if　God　is　recognised　as　solving　all
  contradictions；　God　as　the　solution　of　these　contradictions　is　a　matter　of　words　rather　than
  something　conceived　and　comprehended。　If　God　is　comprehended　in　His　qualities；　and
  prescience；　omnipresence；　omniscience；　power；　wisdom；　goodness；　justice；　&c。；　are　considered
  as　qualities　of　God　Himself；　they　simply　lead　to　contradictions；　and　these　contradictions；　Leibnitz
  （supra；　p。　348）　sought　to　remove　by　saying　that　the　qualities　temper　one　another；　i。e。　that　they　are
  combined　in　such　a　way　that　one　annuls　the　other。　This；　however；　is　no　real　comprehension　of
  such　contradiction。
  This　metaphysic　contrasts　greatly　with　the　old　philosophy　of　a　Plato　or　an　Aristotle。　To　the　old
  philosophy　we　can　always　turn　again　and　admit　its　truth；　it　is　satisfying　in　the　stage　of　development
  it　has　reached　…　a　concrete　centre…point　which　meets　all　the　problems　set　by　thought　as　these　are
  comprehended。　In　this　modern　metaphysic；　however；　the　opposites　are　merely　developed　into
  absolute　contradictions。　God　is　indeed　given　as　their　absolute　solution；　but　only　as　an　abstract
  solution；　as　a　Beyond；　on　this　side　all　contradictions　are；　as　regards　their　content；　unsolved　and
  unexplained。　God　is　not　comprehended　as　the　One　in　whom　these　contradictions　are　eternally
  resolved；　He　is　not　comprehended　as　Spirit；　as　the　Trinity。　It　is　in　Him　alone　as　Spirit；　and　as　Spirit
  which　is　Three　in　One；　that　this　opposition　of　Himself　and　His　Other；　the　Son；　is　contained；　and
  with　it　the　resolution　of　the　same；　this　concrete　Idea　of　God　as　reason；　has　not　as　yet　found　an
  entrance　into　Philosophy。
  In　order　that　we　may　now　cast　a　retrospective　glance　over　the　philosophic　efforts　of　other　nations；
  we　shall　apply　ourselves　to　the　further　progress　of　Philosophy。　Once　more　we　see　Scepticism
  making　its　way　into　this　and　philosophy　of　the　understanding。　But　this　time　it　is；　properly　speaking；
  in　the　form　of　Idealism；　or　the　determinations　are　subjective　determinations　of　self…consciousness。
  In　the　place　of　thought　we　consequently　find　the　Notion　now　making　its　appearance。　Just　as　with
  the　Stoics　determinateness　is　held　to　be　an　object　of　thought；　we　have　in　modern　times　this　same
  manifestation　of　thought　as　the　unmoved　form　of　simplicity。　Only　here　the　image　or　inner
  consciousness　of　totality　is　present；　the　absolute　spirit　which　the　world　has　before　it　as　its　truth　and
  to　whose　Notion　it　makes　its　way　…　this　is　another　inward　principle；　another　implicitude　of　mind
  which；　it　endeavours　to　bring　forth　from　itself　and　for　itself；　so　that　reason　is　a　comprehension　of
  the　same；　or　has　the　certitude　of　being　all　reality。　With　the　ancients　reason；　as　the　implicit　and
  explicit　Being　of　consciousness；　had　only　an　ethereal　and　formal　existence　as　language；　but　here　it
  has　certainty　as　existent　substance。　Hence　with　Descartes　there　is　the　unity　of　the　Notion　and
  Being；　and　with　Spinoza　the　universal　reality。　The　first　commencement　of　the　Notion　of　the
  movement　of　fixed　thoughts　in　themselves　is　found　in　this；　that　the　movement　which；　as　method；
  simply　falls　outside　its　object；　comes　within　it；　or　that　self…consciousness　comes　within　thought。
  Thought　is　implicitude　without　explicitude；　an　objective　mode　bearing　no　resemblance　to　a
  sensuous　thing；　and　yet　it　is　quite　different　from　the　actuality　of　self…consciousness。　This　Notion
  which　we　now　find　entering　into　thought；　has　the　three　kinds　of　form　which　we　still　have　to
  consider；　in　the　first　place　it　has　that　of　individual　self…consciousness　or　the　formal　conception
  generally；　secondly；　that　of　universal　self…consciousness；　which　applies　itself　to　all　objects　whether
  they　be　objects　of　thought；　determinate　conceptions；　or　have　the　form　of　actuality　…　that　is　to　say　it
  applies　itself　to　what　is　established　in　thought；　to　the　intellectual　world　with　the　riches　of　its
  determinations　and　looked　on　as　a　Beyond；　or　to　the　intellectual　world　in　as　far　as　it　is　its
  realisation；　the　world　here　and　around　us。　It　is　in　those　two　ways；　and　in　those　ways　alone；　that　the
  actual　Notion　is　present　in　the　succeeding　chapter；　for　not　as　yet　is　it　in　the　third　place　to　be　found
  as　taken　back　into　thought；　or　as　the　self…thinking　or　thought　of　Notion。　While　that　universal
  self…consciousness　is；　on　the　whole；　a　thought　which　grasps　and　comprehends；　this　third　kind　of
  thought　is　the　Notion　itself　recognised　as　constituting　reality　in　its　essence；　that　is　to　say　as
  Idealism。　These　three　aspects　again　divide　themselves　as　before　into　the　three　nations　which　alone
  count　in　the　civilised　world。　The　empirical　and　perfectly　finite　form　of　Notion　pertains　to　the
  English；　to　the　French　belongs　its　form　as　making　an　attempt　at　everything；　as　establishing　itself　in
  its　reality；　abolishing　all　determination；　and　therefore　being　universal；　unlimited；　pure
  self…consciousness；　and；　lastly；　to　the　German　pertains　the　entering　into　itself　of　this　implicitude；　the
  thought　of　the　absolute　Notion。
  1。　Buhle：　Geschichte　der　neuern　Philosoph。；　Vol。　IV。　Sec。　II。；　pp。　571…582；　Tiedemann；　Geist　der
  speculativen　Philos。；　Vol。　VI。　pp。　511…518；　Rixner：　Handbuch　der　Geschichte　der　Philosophie；
  Vol。　III。　§　79；　pp。　195；　196。
  2。　Wolf's　Vernünftige　Gedanken　von　Gott；　der　Welt　und　der　Seele　des　Menschen　（Halle；　1741）；
  Pt。　I。　chap。　ii。　§　114；　120；　pp。　59；　60；　62；　63；　chap。　vi。　§　575…581；　686；　pp。　352…359；　425；
  chap。　v。　§　742；　p。　463；　§　926；　p。　573；　chap。　vi。　§　928；　p。　574；　seq。
  3。　Wolff's　Anfangsgründe　aller　mathematischen　Wissenschaften；　Pt。　I。：　Anfangsgründe　der
  Baukunst；　Pt。　II。　Prop。　8；　p。　414；　Problem　22；　pp。　452；　453；　Pt。　II。：　Anfangsgründe　der
  Fortification；　Pt。　I。　p。　570。
  Section　Two：　Period　of　the　Thinking　Understanding
  Chapter　II。　—　Transition　Period；　A　Idealism　&　Scepticism
  1。　BERKELEY。
  This　idealism；　in　which　all　external　reality　disappears；　has　before　it　the　standpoint　of　Locke；　and　it
  proceeds　directly　from　him。　For　we　saw　that　to　Locke　the　source　of　truth　is　experience；　or　Being
  as　perceived。