Wolffian　philosophy　…　for　this　it　had　not　been　possible　to　eradicate　…　and　it　declared　the　same　to
  be　harmless；　that　is　to　say；　free　from　all　danger　to　state　and　religion；　it　also　forbade　the　theologians
  to　make　it　a　subject　of　dispute；　and　altogether　put　an　end　to　their　clamour。　Frederick　William　now
  issued　a　recall　in　very　respectful　terms　to　Wolff；　who；　however；　hesitated　to　comply　with　it　owing
  to　his　lack　of　confidence　in　its　sincerity。　On　the　accession　of　Frederick　II。　in　1740　he　was　again
  recalled　in　terms　of　the　highest　honour　（Lange　had　meanwhile　died）；　and　only　then　did　be　comply。
  Wolff　became　Vice…Chancellor　of　the　University；　but　he　outlived　his　repute；　and　his　lectures　at　the
  end　were　very　poorly　attended。　He　died　in　1754。（1）
  Like　Tschirnhausen　and　Thomasius；　Wolff　wrote　a　great　part　of　his　works　in　his　mother　tongue；
  while　Leibnitz　for　the　most　part　wrote　only　in　Latin　or　French。　This　is　an　important　matter；　for；　as
  we　have　already　noticed　（pp。　114　and　150）；　it　is　only　when　a　nation　possesses　a　science　in　its　own
  language　that　it　can　really　be　said　to　belong　to　it；　and　in　Philosophy　most　of　all　this　is　requisite。　For
  thought　has　in　it　this　very　moment　of　pertaining　to　self…consciousness　or　of　being　absolutely　its
  own；　when　one's　own　language　is　the　vehicle　of　expression；　as　when　we　talk　of　〃Bestimmtheit〃
  instead　of　〃Determination；〃　and　〃Wesen〃　instead　of　〃Essenz；〃　it　is　immediately　present　to　our
  consciousness　that　the　conceptions　are　absolutely　its　own；　it　has　to　deal　with　these　at　all　times；　and
  they　are　in　no　way　foreign　to　it。　The　Latin　language　has　a　phraseology；　a　definite　sphere　and　range
  of　conception；　it　is　at　once　taken　for　granted　that　when　men　write　in　Latin　they　are　at　liberty　to　be
  dull；　it　is　impossible　to　read　or　write　what　men　permit　themselves　to　say　in　Latin。　The　titles　of
  Wolff's　philosophic　works　are　perpetually　of　this　nature：　〃Rational　thoughts　on　the　powers　of　the
  human　understanding　and　their　right　uses　in　the　knowledge　of　the　truth；〃　Halle；　1712；　8vo；
  〃Rational　thoughts　on　God；　the　world；　and　the　soul　of　man；　likewise　on　all　things　generally；〃
  Frankfort　and　Leipzig；　1719；　〃On　the　action　and　conduct　of　men；〃　Halle；　1720；　〃On　Social　Life；〃
  Halle；　1720；　〃On　the　operations　of　Nature；〃　Halle；　1723；　and　so　on。　Wolff　wrote　German　and
  Latin　quartos　on　every　department　of　Philosophy；　even　on　economics　…　twenty…three　thick
  volumes　of　Latin；　or　about　forty　quartos　altogether。　His　mathematical　works　make　a　good　many
  more　quartos。　He　brought　into　general　use　the　differential　and　integral　calculus　of　Leibnitz。
  It　is　only　in　its　general　content　and　taken　as　a　whole　that　Wolff's　philosophy　is　the　philosophy　of
  Leibnitz；　that　is　to　say；　only　in　relation　to　the　fundamental　determinations　of　monads　and　to　the
  theodicy　…　to　these　he　remained　faithful；　any　other　content　is　empiric；　derived　from　our　feelings　and
  desires。　Wolff　likewise　accepted　in　their　entirety　all　the　Cartesian　and　other　definitions　of　general
  ideas。　Hence　we　find　in　him　abstract　propositions　and　their　proofs　mingled　with　experiences；　on
  the　indubitable　truth　of　which　he　builds　a　large　part　of　his　propositions；　and　he　must　so　build　and
  derive　his　foundations　if　a　content　is　to　result　at　all。　With　Spinoza；　on　the　contrary；　no　content　is　to
  be　found　excepting　absolute　substance　and　a　perpetual　return　into　the　same。　The　greatness　of
  Wolff's　services　to　the　culture　of　Germany；　which　now；　appeared　quite　independently　and　without
  any　connection　with　an　earlier　and　profounder　metaphysical　standpoint　（supra；　p。　350）；　are　in
  proportion　to　the　barrenness　and　inward　contentless　condition　into　which　Philosophy　had　sunk。
  This　he　divided　into　its　formal　disciplines；　spinning　it　out；　into　determinations　of　the　understanding
  with　a　pedantic　application　of　geometric　methods；　and；　contemporaneously　with　the　English
  philosophers；　he　made　the　dogmatism　of　the　metaphysics　of　the　understanding　fashionable；　that　is
  a；　philosophizing　which　determines　the　absolute　and　rational　by　means　of　self…exclusive
  thought…determinations　and　relationships　（such　as　one　and　many；　simple　and　compound；　finite　and
  infinite；　causal　connection；　&c。）。　Wolff　entirely　displaced　the　Aristotelian　philosophy　of　the
  schools；　and　made　Philosophy　into　an　ordinary　science　pertaining　to　the　German　nation。　But
  besides　this　he　gave　Philosophy　that　systematic　and　requisite　division　into　sections　which　has　down
  to　the　present　day　served　as　a　sort　of　standard。
  In　theoretic　philosophy　Wolff　first　treats　of　Logic　purified　from　scholastic　interpretations　or
  deductions；　it　is　the　logic　of　the　understanding　which　he　has　systematized。　The　second　stage　is
  Metaphysics；　which　contains　four　parts：　first　there　is　Ontology；　the　treatment　of　abstract　and　quite
  general　philosophic　categories；　such　as　Being　and　its　being　the　One　and　Good；　in　this　abstract
  metaphysic　there　further　comes　accident；　substance；　cause　and　effect；　the　phenomenon；　&c。　Next
  in　order　is　Cosmology；　a　general　doctrine　of　body；　the　doctrine　of　the　world；　here　we　have
  abstract　metaphysical　propositions　respecting　the　world；　that　there　is　no　chance；　no　leaps　or
  bounds　in　nature　…　the　law　of　continuity。　Wolff　excludes　natural　science　and　natural　history。　The
  third　part　of　the　metaphysic　is　rational　psychology　or　pneumatology；　the　philosophy　of　the　soul；
  which　deals　with　the　simplicity；　immortality；　immateriality　of　the　soul。　Finally；　the　fourth　is　natural
  theology；　which　sets　forth　the　proofs　of　the　existence　of　God。（2）　Wolff　also　inserts　（chap。　iii。）　an
  empirical　psychology。　Practical　philosophy　he　divides　into　the　Rights　of　Nature；　Morality；　the
  Rights　of　Nations　or　Politics；　and　Economics。
  The　whole　is　propounded　in　geometric　forms　such　as　definitions；　axioms；　theorems；　scholia；
  corollaries；　&c。　In　mathematics　the　understanding　is　in　its　proper　place；　for　the　triangle　must
  remain　the　triangle。　Wolff　on　the　one　hand　started　upon　a　large　range　of　investigation；　and　one
  quite　indefinite　in　character；　and　on　the　other；　held　to　a　strictly　methodical　manner　with　regard　to
  propositions　and　their　proofs。　The　method　is　really　similar　to　that　of　Spinoza；　only　it　is　more
  wooden　and　lifeless　than　his。　Wolff　applied　the　same　methods　to　every　sort　of　content　…　even　to
  that　which　is　altogether　empirical；　such　as　his　so…called　applied　mathematics；　into　which　he
  introduces　many　useful　arts；　bringing　the　most　ordinary　reflections　and　directions　into　the　geometric
  form。　In　many　cases　this　undoubtedly　gives　his　work　a　most　pedantic　aspect；　especially　when　the
  content　directly　justifies　itself　to　our　conception　without　this　form　at　all。　For　Wolff　proceeds　by　first
  laying　down　certain　definitions；　which　really　rest　upon　our　ordinary　conceptions；　since　these　he
  translated　into　the　empty　form　of　determinations　of　the　understanding。　Hence　the　definitions　are
  merely　nominal　definitions；　and　we　know　whether　they　are　correct　only　by　seeing　whether　they
  correspond　to　conceptions　which　are　referred　to　their　simple　thoughts。　The　syllogism　is　the　form　of
  real　importance　in　this　mode　of　reasoning；　and　with　Wolff　it　often　attains　to　its　extreme　of　rigidity
  and　formalism。
  Under　mathematics；　which　is　the　subject　of　four　small　volumes；　Wolff　also　treats　of　architecture
  and　military　science。　One　of　the　propositions　in　Architecture　is　this：　〃Windows　must　be　wide
  enough　for　two　persons。〃　The　making　of　a　door　is　also　propounded　as　a　task；　and　the　solution
  thereof　given。　The　next　best　example　comes　from　the　art　of　warfare。　The　〃Fourth　proposition。　The
  approach　to　the　fortress　must　always　be　harder　for　the　enemy　the　nearer　he　comes　to　it。〃　Instead
  of　saying　because　the　danger　is　greater；　which　would　be　trivial；　there　follows　the　〃Proof。　The
  nearer　the　enemy　comes　to　the　fortress；　the　greater　the　danger。　But　the　greater　the　danger　the
  greater　the　resistance　that　must　be　offered　in　order　to　defy　the　attacks；　and；　so　far　as　may　be；
  avert　the　danger。　Hence　the　nearer　the　enemy　is　to　the　fort　the　harder　must　the　approach　be　made
  for　him。　Q。E。D。〃（3）　Since　the　increase　of　the　danger　is　given　as　the　reason；　the　whole　is　false；　and
  the　contrary　may　be　said　with　equal　truth。　For　if　at　the　beginning　all　possible　resistance　is　offered
  to　the　enemy；　he　cannot　get　nearer　the　fortress　at　all；　and　thus　the　danger　cannot　become　greater。
  The　greater　resistance　has　a　real　cause；　and　not　this　foolish　one　…　namely；　that　because　the　garrison
  is　now　at　closer　quarters；　and　consequently　operates　in　a　narrow　field；　it　can　offer　a　greater
  resistance。　In　this　most　trivial　way　Wolff　proceeds　with　every　sort　of　content。　This　barbarism　of
  pedantry；　or　this　pedantry　of　barbarism；　represented　as　it　is　in　its　whole　breadth　and　extent；
  necessarily　brought　itself　into　disrepute；　and　without　there　being　a　definite　consciousness　of　the
  reason　why　the　geometric　method　is　not　the　only　and　ultimate　method　of　knowledge；　instinct　and
  an　immediate　consciousness　of　the　foolishness　of　its　applications　caused　this　method　to　be　set
  aside。
  C　3。　THE　POPULAR　PHILOSOPHY　OF
  GERMANY。
  Popular　philosophy　flatters　our　ordinary　consciousness；　makes　it　the　ultimate　standard。　Although
  with　Spinoza　we　begin