will　successfully　accomplish　it。　The　Christian　intellectual　world　is　dragged　down　to　the　form　of
  ordinary　actuality　and　consequently　it　is　ruined。
  The　name　of　Clarke　is　likewise　famous　in　connection　with　his　proof　of　the　existence　of　God。　There
  were　quite　a　number　of　other　English　philosophers；　whom　we　do　not；　however；　require　to　notice；
  for　Clarke；　Wollaston；　and　others　carry　on　their　speculations　within　forms　such　as　belong　to　a　very
  commonplace　metaphysic　of　the　understanding。　The　manifold　systems　of　moral　philosophy　which
  we　find　taking　their　rise　in　England　are　drawn　up　from　this　same　mental　standpoint；　in　them　the
  implicitude　of　mind　appears　in　a　form　of　natural　existence；　namely；　of　desires　and　feelings。　Their
  principles　are　found　in　moral　sentiments；　benevolent　desires；　sympathy；　&c。　That　form　alone　is
  worthy　of　notice　which；　on　the　one　hand；　represents　duty　as　something　which　is　not　foreign；　given；
  commanded；　but　as　clearly　belonging　to　self…consciousness；　even　while；　on　the　other　hand；　it
  represents　this　property　as　a　natural；　unconscious；　unspiritual；　and　irrational　existence。　Impulse　is
  blind；　a　solid　existence　which　cannot　get　beyond　itself　like　thinking　self…consciousness。　It　is　indeed
  true　of　impulse　that　its　pure　activity　or　its　process；　and　the　content；　are；　as　in　thought；　immediately
  posited　as　the　same；　it　has　its　content　in　itself；　and　this　is　not　dead　and　passive；　but　self…acting　and
  impelling。　But　that　unity　has　the　form　of　immediacy　only　as　existent；　in　the　first　place　it　is　not　a
  knowledge；　it　is　not　necessary；　for　it　is　only　taken　from　inward　perception；　in　the　second　place；　it
  is　a　determinate　which　does　not　abrogate　itself；　beyond　which　we　cannot　get；　and　which　thus　is　not
  a　universal。　Impulse　is　no　more　an　infinite　than　is　the　fixed　category　of　force。　Such　reasoning　takes
  the　impulses　in　their　determinate　character　from　experience；　and　expresses　the　appearance　of
  necessity　in　the　same　as　an　inward　existence；　as　a　force。　For　instance；　the　social　instinct　is　a
  moment　which　is　found　in　experience；　because　man　derives　all　manner　of　utility　from　society。
  Wherein　does　the　necessity　of　the　State；　of　society；　find　its　basis？　In　a　social　desire。　This　is　cause；
  just　as　in　the　physical　world　a　formal　interpretation　such　as　this　is　always　to　be　found。　The
  necessity　of　any　existent　fact；　such　as　what　pertains　to　electrical　phenomena；　finds　its　basis　in　a
  force　which　brings　it　forth；　it　is　merely　the　form　of　returning　from　the　external　to　an　inward；　of
  passing　from　the　existent　to　what　is　thought；　which　is　again　in　turn　represented　as　an　existent。
  Force　is　necessitated　by　reason　of　the　manifestation；　we　must　argue　from　the　latter　to　the　former。
  On　the　other　hand；　the　manifestation　takes　place　through　the　force；　for　it　is　the　cause　of　the
  manifestation；　we　hence　have　force　in　one　place　as　reason；　and　in　another　as　cause。　But　in　all　this
  there　is　no　realization　of　the　fact　that　in　respect　of　form　there　is　a　transition　from　the　Notion　into
  Being　and　the　other　way；　while　in　respect　of　content　there　is　a　perfect　contingency　of
  manifestation；　we　look　at　electricity　in　the　same　way　as　we　look　at　the　fact　that　men　have　social
  instincts；　sympathetic　inclinations；　and　so　on。
  B　5。　PUFFENDORF。
  In　the　struggle　to　give　to　just　and　equitable　relations　in　the　State　an　independent　basis　of　their　own；
  and　to　found　a　judicial　system　of　government；　reflective　thought　put　forth　its　efforts；　and　this
  became　to　it　a　real　interest　and　concern。　And；　as　in　the　case　of　Grotius；　it　was　also　true　of
  Puffendorf；　that　the　instinct　of　mankind　—　that　is；　the　social　instinct；　&c。　—　was　made　the　principle。
  Samuel　von　Puffendorf　was　born　in　1632　in　Saxony；　he　studied　public　law；　philosophy；　and
  mathematics　at　Leipzig　and　Jena；　in　1661；　as　a　professor　at　Heidelberg；　he　made　natural　and　civil
  law　for　the　first　time　academic　studies；　in　1668　he　became　tutor　in　a　Swedish　family；　which　office
  he　later　on　exchanged　for　the　service　of　the　House　of　Brandenburg；　and　in　1694　he　died　at　Berlin
  as　a　privy　councillor。　He　wrote　several　works　on　political　law　and　history；　we　must　specially
  mention　his　work；　De　jure　natur？　et　gentium；　Libr。　viii。；　Londin。　Scan。　1672；　4；　and　also　his
  compendium　De　officio　hominis；　published　at　the　same　place　in　1673）　8；　and　Elementa
  jurisprudenti？；　universalis。（9）　While　the　divine　right　of　kings　was　here　still　recognized　—
  whereby　they　rendered　account　to　God　alone；　or；　at　all　events；　were　still　bound　to　take　counsel　of
  the　Church　—　the　impulses　and　necessities　present　in　mankind　were　now　considered　as　well。
  These　were　regarded　as　the　inward　principles　for　private　and　political　law；　and　from　them　the
  duties　both　of　the　government　and　of　rulers　were　deduced；　so　that　the　freedom　of　mankind　might
  not　be　interfered　with。　The　basis　of　the　state　in　Puffendorf's　view　is　the　social　instinct：　the　highest
  end　of　the　state　is　the　peace　and　security　of　social　life　through　the　transformation　of　inward　duties
  as　prescribed　by；　conscience　into　external　duties　as　compelled　by　law。（10）
  B　6。　NEWTON。
  The　other　side　is　that　thought　likewise　applied　itself　to　nature；　and　in　this　connection　Isaac　Newton
  is　famous　by　reason　of　his　mathematical　discoveries　and　his　work　in　physics。　He　was　born　in　1642
  at　Cambridge；　made　a　special　study　of　mathematics；　and　became　professor　of　the　same　at
  Cambridge；　later　on　he　was　made　president　of　the　Royal　Society　in　London；　and　he　died　in
  1727。（11）
  Newton　was　indisputably　the　chief　contributor　to　the　popularity　of　the　philosophy　of　Locke；　or　the
  English　method　of　treating　of　Philosophy；　and　more　especially　did　he　promote　its　application　to　all
  the　physical　sciences。　“Physics；　beware　of　metaphysics；”　was　his　maxim；（12）　which　signifies；
  Science；　beware　of　thought；　and　all　the　physical　sciences；　even　to　the　present　day；　have；　following
  in　his　wake；　faithfully　observed　this　precept；　inasmuch　as　they　have　not　entered　upon　an
  investigation　of　their　conceptions；　or　thought　about　thoughts。　Physics　can；　however；　effect　nothing
  without　thought；　it　has　its　categories　and　laws　through　thought　alone；　and　without　thought　it　does
  not　effect　any　progress。　Newton　was　mainly　instrumental　in　introducing　to　physics　the
  determinations　respecting　forces；　which　pertain　to　reflection；　he　raised　science　to　the　standpoint　of
  reflection；　and　set　the　laws　of　forces　in　the　place　of　the　laws　of　phenomena。　Regarding　matters　as
  he　did；　Newton　derived　his　conclusions　from　his　experiences；　and　in　physics　and　the　theory　of
  colour…vision；　he　made　bad　observations　and　drew　worse　conclusions。　He　passed　from
  experiences　to　general　points　of　view；　again　made　them　fundamental；　and　from　them　constructed
  the　individual；　this　is　how　his　theories　are　constructed。　The　observation　of　things；　the　discovery　of
  the　law　immanent　therein；　and　the　universal　which　is　found　within　them；　has　become　the　real　point
  of　interest。　In　this　way；　Newton　is　so　complete　a　barbarian　as　regards　his　conceptions　that　his　case
  is　like　that　of　another　of　his　countrymen　who　was　surprised　and　rejoiced　to　learn　that　he　had
  talked　prose　all　his　life；　not　having　had　any　idea　that　he　was　so　accomplished。　This　Newton；　like　all
  the　Physicists；　indeed；　never　learned；　he　did　not　know　that　he　thought　in；　and　had　to　deal　with
  Notions；　while　he　imagined　he　was　dealing　with　physical　facts：　and　he　presented　the　extremest
  contrast　to　Boehme；　who　handled　sensuous　things　as　Notions；　and；　by　sheer　force　of　mind；
  obtained　entire　possession　of　their　actuality　and　subjugated　them。　Instead　of　this　Newton　treated
  Notions　like　sensuous　things；　and　dealt　with　them　just　as　men　deal　with　wood　and　stone。　And　this
  is　even　now　the　case。　In　the　beginnings　of　physical　science　we　read　of　the　power　of　inertia；　for
  instance；　of　the　force　of　acceleration；　of　molecules；　of　centripetal　and　centrifugal　force；　as　of　facts
  which　definitely　exist；　what　are　really　the　final　results　of　reflection　are　represented　as　their　first
  grounds。　If　we　ask　for　the　cause　of　there　being　no　advance　made　in　such　sciences；　we　find　that　it　is
  because　men　do　not　understand　that　they　should　apply　themselves　to　Notions；　but　make　up　their
  minds　to　adopt　these　determinations　without　sense　or　understanding。　Hence　in　Newton's　Optics；
  for　instance；　there　are　conclusions　derived　from　his　experience　which　are　so　untrue　and　devoid　of
  understanding；　that　while　they　are　set　forth　as　the　finest　example　of　how　men　can　learn　to　know
  nature　by　means　of　experiments　and　conclusions　derived　from　experiments；　they　may　also　serve　as
  an　example　of　how　we　should　neither　experiment　nor　draw　conclusions；　of　how　nothing　at　all　can
  be　learned。　A　miserable　kind　of　experience　like　this　itself　contradicts　itself　through　nature；　for
  nature　is　more　excellent　than　it　appears　in　this　wretched　experience：　both　nature　itself　and
  experience；　when　carried　a　little　further；　contradict　it。　Hence；　of　all　the　splendid　discoveries　of
  Newton　in　optics；　none　now　remain　excepting　one　—　the　division　of　light　into　seven　colours。　This　is
  partly　because　the　conception　of　whole　and　part　come　into　play；　and　partly　from　an　obdurate
  closing　of　the