or　in　this　particular　aspect　of　Philosophy；　there　is　a　complete　and　entire　change　in　the　point　of　view
  adopted；　the　whole　interest　is　limited　to　the　form　in　which　the　objective；　or　individual　sensations；
  pass　into　the　form　of　conceptions。　In　the　case　of　Spinoza　and　Malebranche；　we　undoubtedly
  likewise　saw　that　it　was　made　a　matter　of　importance　to　recognize　this　relation　of　thought　to　what
  is　sensuously　perceived；　and　thus　to　know　it　as　falling　into　relation；　as　passing　into　the　relative；　the
  main　question　hence　was：　How　are　the　two　related？　But　the　question　was　answered　to　the　effect
  that　it　is　only　this　relation　for　itself　that　constitutes　the　point　of　interest；　and　this　relation　itself　as
  absolute　substance　is　thus　identity；　the　true；　God；　it　is　not　the　related　parts。　The　interest　does　not
  lie　in　the　related　parts；　the　related　parts　as　one…sided　are　not　the　existent；　presupposed　and
  permanently　established；　they　are　accidental　merely。　But　here　the　related　sides；　the　things　and　the
  subject；　have　their　proper　va1ue；　and　they　are　presupposed　as　having　this　value。　Locke's
  reasoning　is　quite　shallow；　it　keeps　entirely　to　the　phenomenal；　to　that　which　is；　and　not　to　that
  which　is　true。
  There　is　another　question　however：　Are　these　general　determinations　absolutely　true？　And　whence
  come　they　not　alone　into　my　consciousness；　into　my　mind　and　understanding；　but　into　the　things
  themselves？　Space；　cause；　effect；　etc。；　are　categories。　How　do　these　categories　come　into　the
  particular？　How　does　universal　space　arrive　at　determining　itself？　This　point　of　view；　the　question
  whether　these　determinations　of　the　infinite；　of　substance；　etc。；　are　in　and　for　themselves　true；　is
  quite　lost　sight　of。　Plato　investigated　the　infinite　and　the　finite；　Being　and　the　determinate；　etc。；　and
  pronounced　that　neither　of　these　opposites　is　of　itself　true；　they　are　so　only　as　together　constituting
  an　identity；　wherever　the　truth　of　this　content　may　come　from。　But　here　the　truth　as　it　is　in　and　for
  itself　is　entirely　set　aside　and　the　nature　of　the　content　itself　is　made　the　main　point。　It　does　not
  matter　whether　the　understanding　or　experience　is　its　source；　for　the　question　is　whether　this
  content　is　in　itself　true。　With　Locke；　the　truth　merely　signifies　the　harmony　of　our　conceptions　with
  things；　here　relation　is　alone　in　question；　whether　the　content　is　an　objective　thing　or　a　content　of
  the　ordinary　conception。　But　it　is　quite　another　matter　to　investigate　the　content　itself；　and　to　ask；
  “Is　this　which　is　within　us　true？　We　must　not　dispute　about　the　sources；　for　the　Whence；　the　only
  important　point　to　Locke；　does　not　exhaust　the　whole　question。The　interest　of　the　content　in　and
  for　itself　wholly　disappears　when　that　position　is　taken　up；　and　thereby　the　whole　of　what　is　aimed
  at　by　Philosophy　is　given　up。　On　the　other　hand；　when　thought　is　from　the　beginning　concrete；
  when　thought　and　the　universal　are　synonymous　with　what　is　set　before　us；　the　question　of　the
  relation　of　the　two　which　have　been　separated　by　thought　is　destitute　of　interest　and
  incomprehensible。　How　does　thought　overcome　the　difficulties　which　itself　has　begotten？　Here
  with　Locke　none　at　all　have　been　begotten　and　awakened。　Before　the　need　for　reconciliation　can
  be　satisfied；　the　pain　of　disunion　must　be　excited。
  The　philosophy　of　Locke　is　certainly　very　comprehensible；　but　for　that　very　reason　it　is　likewise　a
  popular　philosophy　to　which　the　whole　of　the　English　philosophy　as　it　exists　at　this　day　is　allied；　it
  is　the　thinking　method　of　regarding　things　which　is　called　philosophy　carried　to　its　perfection；　the
  form　which　was　introduced　into　the　science　which　then　took　its　rise　in　Europe。　This　is　an　important
  moment　in　culture；　the　sciences　in　general　and　specially　the　empiric　sciences　have　to　ascribe　their
  origin　to　this　movement。　To　the　English；　Philosophy　has　ever　signified　the　deduction　of　experiences
  from　observations；　this　has　in　a　one…sided　way　been　applied　to　physical　and　economic　subjects。
  General　principles　of　political　economy　such　as　free…trade　in　the　present　day；　and　all　matters　which
  rest　on　thinking　experience；　the　knowledge　of　whatever　reveals　itself　in　this　sphere　as　necessary
  and　useful；　signifies　philosophy　to　the　English　（Vol。　I。　pp。　57；　58）。　The　scholastic　method　of
  starting　from　principles　and　definitions　has　been　rejected。　The　universal；　laws；　forces；　universal
  matter；　etc。；　have　in　natural　science　been　derived　from　perceptions；　thus　to　the　English；　Newton　is
  held　to　be　the　philosopher　par　excellence。　The　other　side　is　that　in　practical　philosophy　regarding
  society　or　the　state；　thought　applies　itself　to　concrete　objects　such　as　the　will　of　the　prince；
  subjects　and　their　ends　and　personal　welfare。　Inasmuch　as　we　have　an　object　such　as　that　before
  us；　the　indwelling　and　essential　universal　is　made　evident；　it　must；　however；　be　made　clear　which
  conception　is　the　one　to　which　the　others　must　yield。　It　is　in　this　way　that　rational　politics　took　their
  rise　in　England；　because　the　institutions　and　government　peculiar　to　the　English　led　them　specially
  and　in　the　first　place　to　reflection　upon　their　inward　political　and　economic　relationships。　Hobbes
  must　be　mentioned　as　an　exemplification　of　this　fact。　This　manner　of　reasoning　starts　from　the
  present　mind；　from　what　is　our　own；　whether　it　be　within　or　without　us；　since　the　feelings　which　we
  have；　the　experiences　which　fall　directly　within　us；　are　the　principles。　This　philosophy　of　reasoning
  thought　is　that　which　has　now　become　universal；　and　through　which　the　whole　revolution　in　the
  position　taken　up　by　mind　has　come　to　pass。
  1。　Buhle：　Geschichte　der　neuern　Philosophie；　Vol。　IV。　Sec。　1；　pp。　238…241；　Quarterly　Review；
  April；　1817；　pp。　70；　71；　The　Works　of　John　Locke　（London；　1812）；　Vol。　I。：　The　Life　of　the
  Author；　pp。　xix…xxxix。
  2。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（The　Works　of　John　Locke；　Vol。　I。）；　Book
  I。　chap。　ii。　§　1；　chap。　iii。　§　15；　§　22。
  3。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（Vol。　I。）　Book　I。　chap。。　ii。　§　2…9；　§　27；
  chap。　iii。　§　1…15。
  4。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（Vol。　I。）　Bk。　II。　chap。　i。　§　1；　2。
  5。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（Vol。　I。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　i。　§　2…5。
  6。　v。　Schiller's　Xenien。
  7。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（Vol。　I。）；　Bk。　II。；　chap。　ii。　§　2；　not。；　chap。
  xii。　§　1；　chap。　xxii。　§　2；　chap。　i。　§　10…14。
  8。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（Vol。　I。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　xiii。　§　2；　chap。　iv。　§
  2。
  9。　Ibidem　（Vol。　I。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　xiv。　§　3。
  10。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（Vol。　II。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　xxiii。　§　1；　2。
  11。　Ibidem　（Vol。　I。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　xxi。　§　1。
  12。　Ibidem　（Vol。　II。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　xxvi。　§　1。
  13。　Ibidem　（Vol。　I。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　xxi。　§　7。
  14。　Ibidem　（Vol。　I。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　xiii。　§　17；　18。
  15。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（Vol。　I。）；　Bk。　II。　chap。　viii。　§　9…26。
  16。　Locke：　An　Essay　concerning　human　Understanding　（Vol。　II。）；　Bk。　III。　chap。　iii。　§　6；　§　13；
  15。
  Section　Two：　Period　of　the　Thinking　Understanding
  Chapter　I。　—　The　Metaphysics　of　the　Understanding
  B　2。　HUGO　GROTIUS。
  Hugo　Grotius　was　studying　the　laws　of　nations　at　the　same　time　as　Locke；　and　in　him　the　very
  same　methods　may　be　found　as　those　already　mentioned；　inasmuch　as　he　also　falls　into　a　quite
  empirical　system　of　associating　nations　with　one　another；　combining　with　that　an　empirical　mode　of
  reasoning。　Hugo　van　Groot；　born　1583　at　Delft；　was　a　lawyer；　fiscal　general；　and　council
  pensionary；　in　1619；　however；　he　was　implicated　in　the　Barneveldt　trial；　and　was　compelled　to　fly
  the　country。　For　a　long　time　he　remained　in　France；　but　in　1634　he　entered　the　service　of　Queen
  Christina　of　Sweden。　In　1635　he　was　made　Swedish　ambassador　in　Paris；　and　in　1645　he　died　at
  Rostock；　while　on　a　journey　from　Stockholm　to　Holland。（1）　His　principal　work；　De　jure　belli　et
  pacis；　he　composed　in　1625；　now　it　is　not　read；　but　at　one　time　it　exercised　a　very　great　and
  important　influence。　In　it　Grotius　presented　a　comparative　historical　account；　the　material　of　which
  was　partly　derived　from　the　Old　Testament；　of　the　manner　in　which　nations　in　the　various
  relationships　of　war　and　peace　have　acted　towards　one　another；　and　what　usages　they　held　to　be
  binding。　The　following　may　serve　as　an　example　of　his　empirical　method　of　reasoning：　Prisoners
  ought　not　to　be　killed；　for　the　object　is　to　disarm　the　enemy；　and　if　this　end　be　attained　nothing
  further　should　be　done。（2）　This　empirical　way　of　connecting　facts　had　the　effect　of　bringing　general
  comprehensible　and　rational　principles　into　consciousness；　of　making　them　recognized；　and　of
  causing　them　to　be　more　or　less　acceptable。　Thus　we　see　principles　set　forth；　respecting　the
  righteousness　of　a　king's　power　for　instance；　for　thought　applied　itself　to　everything。　We　are
  unsatisfied　by　such　proofs　and　deductions；　but　we　must　not　overlook　what　is　thereby
  accomplished；　and　this　is　the　establishment　of　principles　which　have　their　ultimate　confirmation　in
  the　objects　themselves；　in　mind　and　thought。
  B