other　individual　things；　attain　to　existence；　and　can　preserve　itself　in　existence　only　as　thus
  connected；　combined　and　associated　with　others；”　i。e。；　in　infinite　progress；　the　body　can　by　no
  means　be　conceived　from　itself。　“The　soul's　consciousness　expresses　a　certain　determinate　form　of
  a　Notion；　as　the　Notion　itself　expresses　a　determinate　form　of　an　individual　thing。　But　the　individual
  thing；　its　Notion；　and　the　Notion　of　this　Notion　are　altogether　and　entirely　one　and　the　same　thing；
  only　regarded　under　different　attributes。　As　the　soul　is　nothing　else　than　the　immediate　Notion　of
  the　body；　and　is　one　and　the　same　thing　with　this；　the　excellence　of　the　soul　can　never　be　anything
  else　than　the　excellence　of　the　body。　The　capacities　of　the　understanding　are　nothing　but　the
  capacities　of　the　body；　if　they　are　looked　at　from　the　corporeal　point　of　view；　and　the　decisions　of
  the　will　are　likewise　determinations　of　the　body。　Individual　things　are　derived　from　God　in　an
  eternal　and　infinite　manner”　（i。e。；　once　and　for　all）；　“and　not　in　a　transitory；　finite　and　evanescent
  manner；　they　are　derived　from　one　another　merely　inasmuch　as　they　mutually　produce　and　destroy
  each　other；　but　in　their　eternal　existence　they　endure　unchangeable。　All　individual　things　mutually
  presuppose　each　other；　one　cannot　be　thought　without　the　other；　that　is　to　say　they　constitute
  together　an　inseparable　whole；　they　exist　side　by　side　in　one　utterly　indivisible；　infinite　Thing；　and　in
  no　other　way　whatever。
  3。　We　have　now　to　speak　of　Spinoza's　system　of　morals；　and　that　is　a　subject　of　importance。　Its
  great　principle　is　no　other　than　this；　that　the　finite　spirit　is　moral　in　so　far　as　it　has　the　true　Idea；　i。e。；
  in　so　far　as　it　directs　its　knowledge　and　will　on　God；　for　truth　is　merely　the　knowledge　of　God。　It
  may　be　said　that　there　is　no　morality　loftier　than　this；　since　its　only　requisite　is　to　have　a　clear　idea
  of　God。　The　first　thing　Spinoza　speaks　of　in　this　regard　is　the　affections：　“Everything　strives　after
  self…preservation。　This　striving　is　the　actual　essence　of　the　thing；　and　involves　only　indefinite　time；
  when　referred　exclusively　to　mind；　it　is　termed　will；　when　referred　to　both　mind　and　body　together；
  it　is　called　desire。　Determination　of　the　will　（volitio）　and　Idea　are　one　and　the　same　thing。　The
  sense　of　liberty　rests　on　this；　that　men　do　not　know　the　determining　causes　of　their　actions。　The
  affection　is　a　confused　Idea；　the　more　clearly　and　distinctly；　therefore；　we　know　the　affection；　the
  more　it　is　under　our　control。”（11）　The　influence　of　the　affections；　as　confused　and　limited
  （inadequate）　ideas；　upon　human　action；　constitutes　therefore；　according　to　Spinoza；　human
  slavery；　of　the　passionate　affections　the　principal　are　joy　and　sorrow；　we　are　in　suffering　and
  slavery　in　so　far　as　we　relate　ourselves　as　a　part。（12）
  “Our　happiness　and　liberty　consist　in　an　enduring　and　eternal　love　to　God；　this　intellectual　love
  follows　from　the　nature　of　mind　in　so　far　as　it　is　regarded　as　eternal　truth　through　the　nature　of
  God。　The　more　a　man　recognizes　God's　existence　and　loves　Him；　the　less　does　he　suffer　from　evil
  affections　and　the　less　is　his　fear　of　death。”（13）　Spinoza　requires　in　addition　the　true　kind　of
  knowledge。　There　are；　according　to　him；　three　kinds　of　knowledge；　in　the　first；　which　he　calls
  opinion　and　imagination；　he　includes　the　knowledge　which　we　obtain　from　an　individual　object
  through　the　senses　—　a　knowledge　fragmentary　and　ill…arranged　—　also　knowledge　drawn　from
  signs；　pictorial　conceptions　and　memory。　The　second　kind　of　knowledge　is　for　Spinoza　that　which
  we　derive　from　general　conceptions　and　adequate　ideas　of　the　properties　of　things。　The　third　is
  intuitive　knowledge　（scientia　intuitiva）　which　rises　from　the　adequate　idea　of　the　formal　essence
  of　certain　attributes　of　God　to　the　adequate　knowledge　of　the　essence　of　things。”（14）　Regarding
  this　last　he　then　says：　“The　nature　of　reason　is　not　to　contemplate　things　as　contingent；　but　as
  necessary　。　。　。　to　think　of　all　things　under　a　certain　form　of　eternity　（sub　quadam　specie
  ？ternitatis）；”　i。e。；　in　absolutely　adequate　Notions；　i。e。　in　God。　“For　the　necessity　of　things　is　the
  necessity　of　the　eternal　nature　of　God　Himself。　Every　idea　of　an　individual　thing　necessarily
  includes　the　eternal　and　infinite　essence　of　God　in　itself。　For　individual　things　are　modes　of　an
  attribute　of　God；　therefore　they　must　include　in　themselves　His　eternal　essence。　Our　mind；　in　so　far
  as　it　knows　itself　and　the　body　under　the　form　of　eternity；　has　to　that　extent　necessarily　the
  knowledge　of　God；　and　knows　that　it　is　itself　in　God　and　is　conceived　through　God。　All　Ideas；　in
  so　far　as　they　are　referable　to　God；　are　true。”（15）　Man　must　trace　back　all　things　to　God；　for　God
  is　the　One　in　All；　the　eternal　essence　of　God　is　the　one　thing　that　is；　the　eternal　truth　is　the　only
  thing　for　man　to　aim　at　in　his　actions。　With　Spinoza　this　is　not　a　knowledge　arrived　at　through
  philosophy；　but　only　knowledge　of　a　truth。　“The　mind　can　succeed　in　tracing　back　all　affections　of
  the　body　or　images　of　things　to　God。　In　proportion　as　the　mind　regards　all　things　as　necessary；　it
  has　a　greater　power　over　its　affections；”　which　are　arbitrary　and　contingent。　This　is　the　return　of
  the　mind　to　God；　and　this　is　human　freedom；　as　mode；　on　the　other　hand；　the　spirit　has　no
  freedom；　but　is　determined　from　without。　“From　the　third　kind　of　knowledge　there　arises　the
  repose　of　the　mind；　the　supreme　good　of　the　mind　is　to　know　God；　and　this　is　the　highest　virtue。
  This　knowledge　necessarily　produces　the　intellectual　love　of　God；　for　it　produces　a　joyfulness
  accompanied　by　the　Idea　of　God　as　cause　—　i。e。　the　intellectual　love　of　God。　God　Himself　loves
  Himself　with　an　infinite　intellectual　love。”（16）　For　God　can　have　only　Himself　as　aim　and　cause；
  and　the　end　of　the　subjective　mind　is　to　be　directed　on　Him。　This　is　therefore　the　purest；　but　also　a
  universal　morality。
  In　the　thirty…sixth　Letter　（pp。　581…582）　Spinoza；　speaks　of　Evil。　The　allegation　is　made　that　God；
  as　the　originator　of　all　things　and　everything；　is　also　the　originator　of　evil；　is　consequently　Himself
  evil；　in　this　identity　all　things　are　one；　good　and　evil　are　in　themselves　the　same　thing；　in　God's
  substance　this　difference　has　disappeared。　Spinoza　says　in　answer　to　this　“I　assert　the　fact　that
  God　absolutely　and　truly”　（as　cause　of　Himself）　“is　the　cause　of　everything　that　has　an　essential
  content”　（i。e。；　affirmative　reality）　“be　it　what　it　may。　Now　if　you　can　prove　to　me　that　evil；　error；
  crime；　etc。；　are　something　that　expresses　an　essence；　I　will　freely　admit　to　you　that　God　is　the
  originator　of　crime　and　evil　and　error。　But　I　have　elsewhere　abundantly　demonstrated　that　the　form
  of　evil　cannot　subsist　in　anything　that　expresses　an　essence；　and　therefore　it　cannot　be　said　that
  God　is　the　cause　of　evil。”　Evil　is　merely　negation；　privation；　limitation；　finality；　mode　—　nothing　in
  itself　truly　real。　“Nero's　murder　of　his　mother；　in　so　far　as　it　had　positive　content；　was　no　crime。
  For　Orestes　did　the　same　external　deed；　and　had　in　doing　itthe　same　end　in　view　—　to　kill　his
  mother；　and　yet　he　is　not　blamed；”　and　so　on。　The　affirmative　is　the　will；　the　intention；　the　act　of
  Nero。　“Wherein　then　consists　Nero's　criminality？　In　nothing　else　but　that　he　proved　himself
  ungrateful；　merciless；　and　disobedient。　But　it　is　certain　that　all　this　expresses　no　essence；　and
  therefore　God　was　not　the　cause　of　it；　though　He　was　the　cause　of　Nero's　action　and　intention。”
  These　last　are　something　positive；　but　yet　they　do　not　constitute　the　crime　as　such；　it　is　only　the
  negative　element；　such　as　mercilessness；　etc。　that　makes　the　action　a　crime。　“We　know　that
  whatever　exists；　regarded　in　itself　and　without　taking　anything　else　into　consideration；　contains　a
  perfection　which　extends　as　widely　as　the　essence　of　the　thing　itself　extends；　for　the　essence　is　in
  no　way　different　therefrom。〃　—　〃Because　then；”　we　find　in　the　thirty…second　letter　（pp。　541；　543）；
  “God　does　not　regard　things　abstractly；　or　form　general　definitions；”　（of　what　the　thing　ought　to
  be）　“and　no　more　reality　is　required　of　things　than　the　Divine　understanding　and　power　has　given
  and　actually　meted　out　to　them；　therefore　it　clearly　follows　that　such　privation　exists　only　and　solely
  in　respect　to　our　understanding；　but　not　in　respect　to　God；”　for　God　is　absolutely　real。　It　is　all
  very　well　to　say　this；　but　it　does　not　meet　the　case。　For　in　this　way　God　and　the　respect　to　our
  understanding　are　different。　Where　is　their　unity？　How　is　this　to　be　conceived？　Spinoza　continues
  in　the　thirty…sixth　letter：　“Although　the　works　of　the　righteous　（i。e。；　of　those　who　have　a　clear　idea
  of　God；　to　which　they　direct　all　their　actions　and　even　their　thoughts）；　and”　also　the　works　“of　the
  wicked　（i。e。；　of　those　who　have　no　idea　of　God；　but　only　ideas　of　earthly　things；〃　—　individual；
  personal　interests　and　opinions；　—　〃by　which　their　actions　and　thoughts　are　directed）；　and　all
  whatsoever　exists；　necessarily　proceed　from　God's　eternal　laws　and　counsels；　and　perpetually
  depend　on　God；　they　are　yet　not　distinguished　fro