27。　Cartes。　Principia　philosophi？。　P。　I。　§　49；　p。　13　（p。　93）。
  28。　Ibid。　P。　I。　§　48；　p。　12　（p。　92）。
  29。　Cartes。　Princip。　philosophi？；　P。　I。　§　51；　p。　14　（p。　95）。
  30。　Cartes。　Principia　philosophi？；　P。　I。　§　53；　54；　p。　14　（pp。　96；　97）。
  31。　Cartes。　Princip。　philos。；　P。　I。　§　66…74；　pp。　19…22　（pp。　107…117）；　P。　II　§　4；　p。　25　（pp。
  123；124）。
  32。　Cartes。　Prineipia　philos。　P。　II。　§　16；　20；　37；　38；　pp。　29…31；　38；　39　（pp。　133；　134；　137；　138；
  152…154）。
  33。　Cartes。　Princip。　philos。；　P。　I。　§　66…74；　pp。　19…22　（pp。　107…117）；　P。　II　§　4；　p。　25　（pp。
  123；124）。
  34。　Cf。　Cartes。　Principia　philos。；　P。　II。　§　64；　p。　49　（pp。　178；　179）。
  35。　Cartes。　Principia　philos。；　P。　III。　§　5…42；　46　sqq。　pp。　51…63；　65　sqq。　（pp。　183…208；　p。　210　et
  suiv。）；　P。　IV。　§　1　sqq。；　69；　109…115；　p。　137　sqq。；　116；　178…180　（p。　330　et　suiv。；　388；
  420…425）。
  36。　Cartes。　Principia　philosoph。；　P。　I。　§　37；　39…41；　pp。　10；　11　（pp。　85…88）。
  37。　Cartes。　De　Methodo。　V。　pp。　35；　36　（pp。　185…189）。
  38。　Cartes。　De　Methodo。　V。　p。　29　（173；　174）。
  Section　Two：　Period　of　the　Thinking　Understanding
  Chapter　I。　—　The　Metaphysics　of　the　Understanding
  A　2。　SPINOZA
  The　philosophy　of　Descartes　underwent　a　great　variety　of　unspeculative　developments；　but　in
  Benedict　Spinoza　a　direct　successor　to　this　philosopher　may　be　found；　and　one　who　carried　on　the
  Cartesian　principle　to　its　furthest　logical　conclusions。　For　him　soul　and　body；　thought　and　Being；
  cease　to　have　separate　independent　existence。　The　dualism　of　the　Cartesian　system　Spinoza；　as　a
  Jew；　altogether　set　aside。　For　the　profound　unity　of　his　philosophy　as　it　found　expression　in
  Europe；　his　manifestation　of　Spirit　as　the　identity　of　the　finite　and　the　infinite　in　God；　instead　of
  God's　appearing　related　to　these　as　a　Third　—　all　this　is　an　echo　from　Eastern　lands。　The　Oriental
  theory　of　absolute　identity　was　brought　by　Spinoza　much　more　directly　into　line；　firstly　with　the
  current　of　European　thought；　and　then　with　the　European　and　Cartesian　philosophy；　in　which　it
  soon　found　a　place。
  First　of　all　we　must；　however；　glance　at　the　circumstances　of　Spinoza's　life。　He　was　by　descent　a
  Portuguese　Jew；　and　was　born　at　Amsterdam　in　the　year　1632；　the　name　he　received　was　Baruch；
  but　he　altered　it　to　Benedict。　In　his　youth　he　was　instructed　by　the　Rabbis　of　the　synagogue　to
  which　he　belonged；　but　he　soon　fell　out　with　them；　their　wrath　having　been　kindled　by　the
  criticisms　which　he　passed　on　the　fantastic　doctrines　of　the　Talmud。　He　was　not；　therefore；　long　in
  absenting　himself　from　the　synagogue；　and　as　the　Rabbis　were　in　dread　lest　his　example　should
  have　evil　consequences；　they　offered　him　a　yearly　allowance　of　a　thousand　gulden　if　he　would
  keep　away　from　the　place　and　hold　his　tongue。　This　offer　he　declined；　and　the　Rabbis　thereafter
  carried　their　persecution　of　him　to　such　a　pitch　that　they　were　even　minded　to　rid　themselves　of
  him　by　assassination。　After　having　made　a　narrow　escape　from　the　dagger；　he　formally　withdrew
  from　the　Jewish　communion；　without；　however；　going　over　to　the　Christian　Church。　He　now
  applied　himself　particularly　to　the　Latin　language；　and　made　a　special　study　of　the　Cartesian
  philosophy。　Later　on　he　went　to　Rhynsburg；　near　Leyden；　and　from　the　year　1664　he　lived　in
  retirement；　first　at　Voorburg；　a　village　near　the　Hague；　and　then　at　the　Hague　itself；　highly
  respected　by　numerous　friends：　he　gained　a　livelihood　for　himself　by　grinding　optical　glasses。　It
  was　no　arbitrary　choice　that　led　him　to　occupy　himself　with　light；　for　it　represents　in　the　material
  sphere　the　absolute　identity　which　forms　the　foundation　of　the　Oriental　view　of　things。　Although　he
  had　rich　friends　and　mighty　protectors；　among　whom　even　generals　were　numbered；　he　lived　in
  humble　poverty；　declining　the　handsome　gifts　offered　to　him　time　after　time。　Nor　would　he　permit
  Simon　von　Vries　to　make　him　his　heir；　he　only　accepted　from　him　an　annual　pension　of　three
  hundred　florins；　in　the　same　way　he　gave　up　to　his　sisters　his　share　of　their　father's　estate。　From　the
  Elector　Palatine；　Carl　Ludwig；　a　man　of　most　noble　character　and　raised　above　the　prejudices　of
  his　time；　he　received　the　offer　of　a　professor's　chair　at　Heidelberg；　with　the　assurance　that　he
  would　have　liberty　to　teach　and　to　write；　because　“the　Prince　believed　he　would　not　put　that
  liberty　to　a　bad　use　by　interfering　with　the　religion　publicly　established。”　Spinoza　（in　his　published
  letters）　very　wisely　declined　this　offer；　however；　because　“he　did　not　know　within　what　limits　that
  philosophic　liberty　would　have　to　be　confined；　in　order　that　he　might　not　appear　to　be　interfering
  with　the　publicly　established　religion。”　He　remained　in　Holland；　a　country　highly　interesting　in　the
  history　of　general　culture；　as　it　was　the　first　in　Europe　to　show　the；　example　of　universal　toleration；
  and　afforded　to　many　a　place　of　refuge　where　they　might　enjoy　liberty　of　thought；　for　fierce　as　was
  the　rage　of　the　theologians　there　against　Bekker；　for　example　（Bruck。　Hist。　crit。　phil。　T。　IV。　P。　2；
  pp。　719；　720）；　and　furious　as　were　the　attacks　of　Voetius　on　the　Cartesian　philosophy；　these　had
  not　the　consequences　which　they　would　have　had　in　another　land。　Spinoza　died　on　the　21st　of
  February；　1677；　in　the　forty…fourth　year　of　his　age。　The　cause　of　his　death　was　consumption；　from
  which　he　had　long　been　a　sufferer；　this　was　in　harmony　with　his　system　of　philosophy；　according　to
  which　all　particularity　and　individuality　pass　away　in　the　one　substance。　A　Protestant　divine；
  Colerus　by　name；　who　published　a　biography　of　Spinoza；　inveighs　strongly　against　him；　it　is　true；
  but　gives　nevertheless　a　most　minute　and　kindly　description　of　his　circumstances　and　surroundings
  —　telling　how　he　left　only　about　two　hundred　thalers；　what　debts　he　had；　and　so　on。　A　bill　included
  in　the　inventory；　in　which　the　barber　requests　payment　due　him　by　M。　Spinoza　of　blessed　memory；
  scandalizes　the　parson　very　much；　and　regarding　it　he　makes　the　observation：　“Had　the　barber　but
  known　what　sort　of　a　creature　Spinoza　was；　he　certainly　would　not　have　spoken　of　his　blessed
  memory。”　The　German　translator　of　this　biography　writes　under　the　portrait　of　Spinoza：
  characterem　reprobationis　in　vultu　gerens；　applying　this　description　to　a　countenance　which
  doubtless　expresses　the　melancholy　of　a　profound　thinker；　but　is　otherwise　wild　and　benevolent。
  The　reprobatio　is　certainly　correct；　but　it　is　not　a　reprobation　in　the　passive　sense；　it　is　an　active
  disapprobation　on　Spinoza's　part　of　the　opinions；　errors　and　thoughtless　passions　of　mankind。（1）
  Spinoza　used　the　terminology　of　Descartes；　and　also　published　an　account　of　his　system。　For　we
  find　the　first　of　Spinoza's　works　entitled　“An　Exposition　according　to　the　geometrical　method　of
  the　principles　of　the　Cartesian　philosophy。”　Some　time　after　this　he　wrote　his　Tractatus
  theologico…politicus；　and　by　it　gained　considerable　reputation。　Great　as　was　the　hatred　which
  Spinoza　roused　amongst　his　Rabbis；　it　was　more　than　equalled　by　the　odium　which　he　brought
  upon　himself　amongst　Christian；　and　especially　amongst　Protestant　theologians　—　chiefly　through
  the　medium　of　this　essay。　It　contains　his　views　on　inspiration；　a　critical　treatment　of　the　books　of
  Moses　and　the　like　chiefly　from　the　point　of　view　that　the　laws　therein　contained　are　limited　in　their
  application　to　the　Jews。　Later　Christian　theologians　have　written　critically　on　this　subject；　usually
  making　it　their　object　to　show　that　these　books　were　compiled　at　a　later　time；　and　that　they　date　in
  part　from　a　period　subsequent　to　the　Babylonian　captivity；　this　has　become　a　crucial　point　with
  Protestant　theologians；　and　one　by　which　the　modern　school　distinguishes　itself　from　the　older；
  greatly　pluming　itself　thereon。　All　this；　however；　is　already　to　be　found　in　the　above…mentioned
  work　of　Spinoza。　But　Spinoza　drew　the　greatest　odium　upon　himself　by　his　philosophy　proper；
  which　we　must　now　consider　as　it　is　given　to　us　in　his　Ethics。　While　Descartes　published　no
  writings　on　this　subject；　the　Ethics　of　Spinoza　is　undoubtedly　his　greatest　work；　it　was　published
  after　his　death　by　Ludwig　Mayer；　a　physician；　who　had　been　Spinoza's　most　intimate　friend。　It
  consists　of　five　parts；　the　first　deals　with　God　（De　Deo）。　General　metaphysical　ideas　are　contained
  in　it；　which　include　the　knowledge　of　God　and　nature。　The　second　part　deals　with　the　nature　and
  origin　of　mind　（De　natura　et　origine　mentis）。　We　see　thus　that　Spinoza　does　not　treat　of　the
  subject　of　natural　philosophy；　extension　and　motion　at　all；　for　he　passes　immediately　from　God　to
  the　philosophy　of　mind；　to　the　ethical　point　of　view；　and　what　refers　to　knowledge；　intelligent　mind；
  is　brought　forward　in　the　first　part；　under　the　head　of　the　principles　of　human　knowledge。　The　third
  book　of　the　Ethics　deals　with　the　origin　and　nature　of　the　passions　（De　oriqine　et　natura
  affectuum）；　the　fourth　with　the　powers　of　the　same；　or　human　slavery　（De　servitute　humana　seu
  de　affectuum　viribus）；　the　fifth；　lastly；　with　the　power　of　the　understanding；　with　thought；　or　with
  human　liberty　（De　potentia　intellectus　seu　de　libertate　humana）。　（2）　Kirchenrath　Professor
  Paulus　pub