theirs　sinks　into　the　ordinary　commonplace　of　state　or　class　relationships；　because　admission
  thereinto　is　outwardly　determined。　The　real　matter　is　to　remain　faithful　to　one's　aims。
  Section　One：　Modern　Philosophy　in　its　First　Statement
  A。　BACON。
  There　was　already　being　accomplished　the　abandonment　of　the　content　which　lies　beyond　us；　and
  which　through　its　form　has　lost　the　merit　it　possessed　of　being　true；　and　is　become　of　no
  significance　to　self…consciousness　or　the　certainty　of　self　and　of　its　actuality；　this　we　see　for　the　first
  time　consciously　expressed；　though　not　as　yet　in　a　very　perfect　form；　by　Francis　Bacon；　Baron
  Verulam；　Viscount　St。　Albans。　He　is　therefore　instanced　as　in　the　fore…front　of　all　this　empirical
  philosophy；　and　even　now　our　countrymen　like　to　adorn　their　works　with　sententious　sayings
  culled　from　him。　Baconian　philosophy　thus　usually　means　a　philosophy　which　is　founded　on　the
  observation　of　the　external　or　spiritual　nature　of　man　in　his　inclinations；　desires；　rational　and　judicial
  qualities。　From　these　conclusions　are　drawn；　and　general　conceptions；　laws　pertaining　to　this
  domain；　are　thus　discovered。　Bacon　has　entirely　set　aside　and　rejected　the　scholastic　method　of
  reasoning　from　remote　abstractions　and　being　blind　to　what　lies　before　one’s　eyes。　He　takes　as
  his　standpoint　the　sensuous　manifestation　as　it　appears　to　the　cultured　man；　as　the　latter　reflects
  upon　it；　and　this　is　conformable　to　the　principle　of　accepting　the　finite　and　worldly　as　such。
  Bacon　was　born　in　London　in　1561。　His　progenitors　and　relatives　held　high　office　in　the　state；　and
  his　father　was　Keeper　of　the　Great　Seal　to　Queen　Elizabeth。　He　in　his　turn；　having　been　educated
  to　follow　the　same　vocation；　at　once　devoted　himself　to　the　business　of　the　State；　and　entered
  upon　an　important　career。　He　early　displayed　great　talent；　and　at　the　age　of　nineteen　he　produced
  a　work　on　the　condition　of　Europe　（De　statu　Europ？）。　Bacon　in　his　youth　attached　himself　to　the
  Earl　of　Essex；　the　favourite　of　Elizabeth；　through　whose　support　he；　who　as　a　younger　son　had　to
  see　his　paternal　estate　pass　to　his　elder　brother；　soon　attained　to　better　circumstances；　and　was
  elevated　to　a　higher　position。　Bacon；　however；　sullied　his　fame　by　the　utmost　ingratitude　and
  faithlessness　towards　his　protector；　for　he　is　accused　of　having　been　prevailed　upon　by　the
  enemies　of　the　Earl　after　his　fall　to　charge　him　publicly　with　High　Treason。　Under　James　I。；　the
  father　of　Charles　I。；　who　was　beheaded；　a　weak　man；　to　whom　he　recommended　himself　by　his
  work　De　augmentis　scientiarum；　he　received　the　most　honourable　offices　of　state　by　attaching
  himself　to　Buckingham：　he　was　made　Keeper　of　the　Great　Seal；　Lord　Chancellor　of　England；
  Baron　Verulam。　He　likewise　made　a　rich　marriage；　though　he　soon　squandered　all　his　means；　and
  high　though　his　position　was；　he　stooped　to　intrigues　and　was　guilty　of　accepting　bribes　in　the　most
  barefaced　manner。　Thereby　he　brought　upon　himself　the　ill…will　both　of　people　and　of　nobles；　so
  that　he　was　prosecuted；　and　his　case　was　tried　before　Parliament。　He　was　fined　L40；000；　thrown
  into　the　Tower；　and　his　name　was　struck　out　of　the　list　of　peers；　during　the　trial　and　while　he　was
  in　prison　he　showed　the　greatest　weakness　of　character。　He　was；　however；　liberated　from　prison；
  and　his　trial　was　annulled；　owing　to　the　even　greater　hatred　of　the　king　and　his　minister
  Buckingham；　under　whose　administration　Bacon　had　filled　these　offices；　and　whose　victim　he
  appeared　to　have　been；　for　he　fell　earlier　than　his　comrade　Buckingham；　and　was　deserted　and
  condemned　by　him。　It　was　not　so　much　his　innocence　as　the　fact　that　those　who　ruined　him　had
  made　themselves　hated　to　an　equal　degree　through　their　rule；　that　caused　the　hatred　and
  indignation　against　Bacon　to　be　somewhat　mitigated。　But　he　neither　recovered　his　own　sense　of
  self…respect　nor　the　personal　esteem　of　others；　which　he　had　lost　through　his　former　conduct。　He
  retired　into　private　life；　lived　in　poverty；　had　to　beg　sustenance　from　the　king；　occupied　himself
  during　the　remainder　of　his　life　with　science　only；　and　died　in　1626。　（1）
  Since　Bacon　has　ever　been　esteemed　as　the　man　who　directed　knowledge　to　its　true　source；　to
  experience；　he　is；　in　fact；　the　special　leader　and　representative　of　what　is　in　England　called
  Philosophy；　and　beyond　which　the　English　have　not　yet　advanced。　For　they　appear　to　constitute
  that　people　in　Europe　which；　limited　to　the　understanding　of　actuality；　is　destined；　like　the　class　of
  shopkeepers　and　workmen　in　the　State；　to　live　always　immersed　in　matter；　and　to　have　actuality
  but　not　reason　as　object。　Bacon　won　great　praise　by　showing　how　attention　is　to　be　paid　to　the
  outward　and　inward　manifestations　of　Nature；　and　the　esteem　in　which　his　name　is　thus　held　is
  greater　than　can　be　ascribed　directly　to　his　merit。　It　has　become　the　universal　tendency　of　the　time
  and　of　the　English　mode　of　reasoning；　to　proceed　from　facts；　and　to　judge　in　accordance　with
  them。　Because　Bacon　gave　expression　to　the　tendency；　and　men　require　to　have　a　leader　and
  originator　for　any　particular　manner　of　thinking；　he　is　credited　with　having　given　to　knowledge　this
  impulse　towards　experimental　philosophy　generally。　But　many　cultured　men　have　spoken　and
  thought　regarding　what　concerns　and　interests　mankind；　regarding　state　affairs；　mind；　heart；
  external　nature；　&c。；　in　accordance　with　experience　and　in　accordance　with　a　cultured　knowledge
  of　the　world。　Bacon　was　just　such　a　cultured　man　of　the　world；　who　had　seen　life　in　its　great
  relations；　had　engaged　in　state　affairs；　had　dealt　practically　with　actual　life；　had　observed　men；　their
  circumstances　and　relations；　and　had　worked　with　them　as　cultured；　reflecting；　and；　we　may　even
  say；　philosophical　men　of　the　world。　He　thus　did　not　escape　the　corruption　of　those　who　stood　at
  the　helm　of　the　state。　With　all　the　depravity　of　his　character　he　was　a　man　of　mind　and　clear
  perception；　he　did　not；　however；　possess　the　power　of　reasoning　through　thoughts　and　notions
  that　are　universal。　We　do　not　find　in　him　a　methodical　or　scientific　manner　of　regarding　things；　but
  only　the　external　reasoning　of　a　man　of　the　world。　Knowledge　of　the　world　he　possessed　in　the
  highest　degree：　“rich　imagination；　powerful　wit；　and　the　penetrating　wisdom　which　he　displays
  upon　that　most　interesting　of　all　subjects；　commonly　called　the　world。　This　last　appears　to　us　to
  have　been　the　characteristical　quality　of　Bacon’s　genius。　。　。　It　was　men　rather　than　things　that　he
  had　studied；　the　mistakes　of　philosophers　rather　than　the　errors　of　philosophy。　In　fact　he　was　no
  lover　of　abstract　reasoning；”　and　although　it　pertains　to　philosophy；　we　find　as　little　as　possible　of
  it　in　him。　“His　writings　are　indeed　full　of　refined　and　most　acute　observations；　but　it　seldom　requires
  any　effort　on　our　part　to　apprehend　their　wisdom。”　Hence　mottoes　are　often　derived　from　him。
  “His　judgments；”　however；　“are　commonly　given　ex　cathedra；　or；　if　he　endeavours　to　elucidate
  them；　it　is　by　similes　and　illustrations　and　pointed　animadversions　more　than　by　direct　and
  appropriate　arguments。　General　reasoning　is　absolutely　essential　in　philosophy；　the　want　of　it　is
  marked　in　Bacon’s　writings。”　（2）　His　practical　writings　are　specially　interesting；　but　we　do　not
  find　the　bright　flashes　of　genius　that　we　expected。　As　during　his　career　in　the　state　he　acted　in
  accordance　with　practical　utility；　he　now；　at　its　conclusion；　likewise　applied　himself　in　a　practical
  way　to　scientific　endeavours；　and　considered　and　treated　the　sciences　in　accordance　with　concrete
  experience　and　investigation。　His　is　a　consideration　of　the　present；　he　makes　the　most　of；　and
  ascribes　value　to　it　as　it　appears；　the　existent　is　thus　regarded　with　open　eyes；　respect　is　paid　to　it
  as　to　what　reigns　preeminent；　and　this　sensuous　perception　is　reverenced　and　recognized。　Here　a
  confidence　on　the　part　of　reason　in　itself　and　in　nature　is　awakened；　it　thinkingly　applies　itself　to
  nature；　certain　of　finding　the　truth　in　it；　since　both　are　in　themselves　harmonious。
  Bacon　likewise　treated　the　sciences　methodically；　he　did　not　merely　bring　forward　opinions　and
  sentiments；　he　did　not　merely　express　himself　regarding　the　sciences　dogmatically；　as　a　fine
  gentleman　might；　but　he　went　into　the　matter　closely；　and　established　a　method　in　respect　of
  scientific　knowledge。　It　is　only　through　this　method　of　investigation　introduced　by　him　that　he　is
  noteworthy　—　it　is　in　that　way　alone　that　he　can　be　considered　to　belong　to　the　history　of　the
  sciences　and　of　philosophy。　And　through　this　principle　of　methodical　knowledge　he　has　likewise
  produced　a　great　effect　upon　his　times；　by　drawing　attention　to　what　was　lacking　in　the　sciences；
  both　in　their　methods　and　in　their　content。　He　set　forth　the　general　principles　of　procedure　in　an
  empirical　philosophy。　The　spirit　of　the　philosophy　of　Bacon　is　to　take　experience　as　the　true　and
  only　source　of　knowledge；　and　then　to　regulate　the　thought　concerning　it。　Knowledge　from
  experience　stands　in　opposition　to　knowledge　arising　from　the　speculative　Notion；　and　the
  opposition　is　apprehended