interest　of　all　philosophies。　Here　thought　is　more　independent；　and　thus　we　now　abandon　its　unity
  with　theology；　it　separates　itself　therefrom；　just　as　with　the　Greeks　it　separated　itself　from
  mythology；　the　popular　religion；　and　did　not　until　the　time　of　the　Alexandrians　seek　out　these　forms
  again　and　fill　the　mythological　conceptions　with　the　form　of　thought。　The　bond　remains；　but　for　this
  reason　it　is　clearly　implicit：　theology　throughout　is　merely　what　philosophy　is；　for　this　last　is　simply
  thought　respecting　it。　It　does　not　help　theology　to　strive　against　philosophy；　or　to　say　that　it　wishes
  to　know　nothing　about　it；　and　that　philosophic　maxims　are　thus　to　be　set　aside。　It　has　always　to　do
  with　the　thought　that　it　brings　along　with　it；　and　these　its　subjective　conceptions；　its　home　and
  private　metaphysics；　are　thus　frequently　a　quite　uncultured；　uncritical　thought　…　the　thought　of　the
  street。　Theme　general　conceptions　are；　indeed；　connected　with　particular　subjective　conviction；
  and　this　last　is　said　to　prove　the　Christian　content　to　be　true　in　a　sense　all　its　own；　but　theme
  thoughts　which　constitute　the　criterion　are　merely　the　reflections　and　opinions　which　float　about　the
  surface　of　the　time。　Thus；　when　thought　comes　forth　on　its　own　account；　we　thereby　separate
  ourselves　from　theology；　we　shall；　however；　consider　one　other　in　whom　both　are　still　in　unity。　This
  individual　is　Jacob　Boehme；　for　since　mind　now　moves　in　its　own　domains；　it　is　found　partly　in　the
  natural　and　finite　world；　and　partly　in　the　inward；　and　this　at　first　is　the　Christian。
  While　earlier　than　this；　moreover；　the　spirit；　distracted　by　outward　things；　had　to　make　its　influence
  felt　in　religion　and　in　the　secular　life；　and　came　to　be　known　in　the　popular　philosophy　so…called；　it
  was　only　in　the　sixteenth　and　seventeenth　centuries　that　the　genuine　Philosophy　re…appeared；
  which　seeks　to　grasp　the　truth　as　truth　because　man　in　thought　is　infinitely　free　to　comprehend
  himself　and　nature；　and　along　with　that　seeks　to　understand　the　present　of　rationality；　reality；
  universal　law　itself。　For　this　is　ours；　since　it　is　subjectivity。　The　principle　of　modern　philosophy　is
  hence　not　a　free　and　natural　thought；　because　it　has　the　opposition　of　thought　and　nature　before　it
  as　a　fact　of　which　it　is　conscious。　Spirit　and　nature；　thought　and　Being；　are　the　two　infinite　sides　of
  the　Idea；　which　can　for　the　first　time　truly　make　its　appearance　when　its　sides　are　grasped　for
  themselves　in　their　abstraction　and　totality。　Plato　comprehended　it　as　the　bond；　as　limiting　and　as
  infinite；　as　one　and　many；　simple　and　diverse；　but　not　as　thought　and　Being；　when　we　first
  thinkingly　overcome　this　opposition　it　signifies　comprehending　the　unity。　This　is　the　standpoint　of
  philosophic　consciousness　generally；　but　the　way　in　which　this　unity　must　be　thinkingly　developed
  is　a　double　one。　Philosophy；　hence　falls　into　the　two　main　forms　in　which　the　opposition　is
  resolved；　into　a　realistic　and　an　idealistic　system　of　philosophy；　i。e。；　into　one　which　makes
  objectivity　and　the　content　of　thought　to　arise　from　the　perceptions；　and　one　which　proceeds　to
  truth　from　the　independence　of　thought。
  a。　Experience　constitutes　the　first　of　these　methods；　viz。　Realism。　Philosophy　now　signified；　or　had
  as　its　main　attribute；　self…thought　and　the　acceptance　of　the　present　as　that　in　which　truth　lay；　and
  which　was　thereby　knowable。　All　that　is　speculative　is　pared　and　smoothed　down　in　order　to　bring
  it　under　experience。　This　present　is　the　existent　external　nature；　and　spiritual　activity　as　the　political
  world　and　as　subjective　activity。　The　way　to　truth　was　to　begin　from　this　hypothesis；　but　not　to
  remain　with　it　in　its　external　self…isolating　actuality；　but　to　lead　it　to　the　universal。
  i。　The　activities　of　that　first　method　operate；　to　begin　with；　on　physical　nature；　from　the
  observation　of　which　men　derive　universal　laws；　and　on　this　basis　their　knowledge　is
  founded；　the　science　of　nature；　however；　only　reaches　to　the　stage　of　reflection。　This　kind　of
  experimental　physics　was　once　called；　and　is　still　called　philosophy；　as　Newton's　Principia
  philosophi？　naturalis　（Vol。　I。　p。　59）　show。　This　work　is　one　in　which　the　methods　of　the
  finite　sciences　through　observation　and　deduction　are　alone　present　…　those　sciences　which
  the　French　still　call　the　sciences　exactes。　To　this；　the　understanding　of　the　individual；　piety
  was　opposed；　and　hence　in　this　respect　philosophy　was　termed　worldly　wisdom　（Vol。　I。　p。
  60）。　Here　the　Idea　in　its　infinitude　is　not　itself　the　object　of　knowledge；　but　a　determinate
  content　is　raised　into　the　universal；　or　this　last　in　its　determinateness　for　the　understanding　is
  derived　from　observation；　just　as　is；　for　instance；　done　in　Keppler's　Laws。　In　Scholastic
  philosophy；　on　the　other　hand；　man's　power　of　observation　was　set　aside；　and　disputations
  respecting　nature　at　that　time　proceeded　from　abstruse　hypotheses。
  ii。　In　the　second　place；　the　spiritual　was　observed　as　in　its　realization　it　constitutes　the
  spiritual　world　of　states；　in　order　thus　to　investigate　from　experience　the　rights　of　individuals
  as　regards　one　another；　and　as　regards　rulers；　and　the　rights　of　states　against　states。　Before
  this　popes　anointed　kings；　just　as　was　done　in　Old　Testament　times　to　those　appointed　by
  God；　it　was　in　the　Old　Testament　that　the　tithe　was　commanded；　the　forbidden　degrees　of
  relationship　in　marriage　were　also　adopted　from　the　Mosaic　laws。　What　was　right　and
  permissible　for　kings　was　demonstrated　from　Saul's　and　David's　histories；　the　rights　of
  priesthood　from　Samuel　…　in　short；　the　Old　Testament　was　the　source　of　all　the　principles　of
  public　law；　and　it　is　in　this　way　even　now　that　all　papal　bulls　have　their　deliverances
  confirmed。　It　may　easily　be　conceived　how　much　nonsense　was　in　this　manner　concocted。
  Now；　however；　right　was　sought　for　in　man　himself；　and　in　history；　and　what　had　been
  accounted　right　both　in　peace　and　in　war　was　explained。　In　this　way　books　were　composed
  which　even　now　are　constantly　quoted　in　the　Parliament　of　England。　Men　further　observed
  the　desires　which　could　be　satisfied　in　the　state　and　the　manner　in　which　satisfaction　could
  be　given　to　them；　in　order　thus　from　man　himself；　from　man　of　the　past　as　well　as　of　the
  present；　to　learn　what　is　right。
  b。　The　second　method；　that　of　Idealism；　proceeds　from　what　is　inward；　according　to　it　everything
  is　in　thought；　mind　itself　is　all　content。　Here　the　Idea　itself　is　made　the　object；　that　signifies　the
  thinking　it　and　from　it　proceeding　to　the　determinate。　What　Realism　draws　from　experience　is　now
  derived　from　thought　à　priori；　or　the　determinate　is　also　comprehended　but　not　led　back　to　the
  universal　merely；　but　to　the　Idea。
  The　two　methods　overlap　one　another；　however；　because　experience　on　its　side　desires　to　derive
  universal　laws　from　observations；　while；　on　the　other　side；　thought　proceeding　from　abstract
  universality　must　still　give　itself　a　determinate　content；　thus　a　priori　and　a　posteriori　methods　are
  mingled。　In　France　abstract　universality　was　the　more　predominant；　from　England　experience　took
  its　rise；　and　even　now　it　is　there　held　in　the　greatest　respect；　Germany　proceeded　from　the
  concrete　Idea；　from　the　inwardness　of　mind　and　spirit。
  2。　The　questions　of　present　philosophy；　the　opposites；　the　content　which　occupies　the　attention　of
  these　modern　times；　are　as　follows：　—
  a。　The　first　form　of　the　opposition　which　we　have　already　touched　upon　in　the　Middle　Ages　is　the
  Idea　of　God　and　His　Being；　and　the　task　imposed　is　to　deduce　the　existence　of　God；　as　pure
  spirit；　from　thought。　Both　sides　must　be　comprehended　through　thought　as　absolute　unity；　the
  extremest　opposition　is　apprehended　as　gathered　into　one　unity。　Other　subjects　which　engage　our
  attention　are　connected　with　the　same　general　aim；　namely；　the　bringing　about　of　the　inward
  reconciliation　in　the　opposition　which　exists　between　knowledge　and　its　object。
  b。　The　second　form　of　opposition　is　that　of　Good　and　Evil　…　the　opposition　of　the　assertion　of
  independent　will　to　the　positive　and　universal；　the　origin　of　evil　must　be　known。　Evil　is　plainly　the
  〃other；〃　the　negation　of　God　as　Holiness；　because　He　is；　because　He　is　wise；　good；　and　at　the
  same　time　almighty；　evil　is　contradictory　to　Him；　an　endeavour　is　made　to　reconcile　this
  contradiction。
  c。　The　third　form　of　opposition　is　that　of　the　freedom　of　man　and　necessity。
  i。　The　individual　is　clearly　not　determined　in　any　other　way　than　from　himself；　he　is　the
  absolute　beginning　of　determination；　in　the　'I；'　in　the　self；　a　power　of　decision　is　clearly　to　be
  found。　This　freedom　is　in　opposition　to　the　theory　that　God　alone　is　really　absolutely
  determining。　Further；　when　that　which　happens　is　in　futurity；　the　determining　of　it　through
  God　is　regarded　as　Providence　and　the　foreknowledge　of　God。　In　this；　however；　a　new
  contradiction　is　involved；　inasmuch　as　because　God's　knowledge　is　not　merely　subjective；
  that　which　God　knows　likewi