hence　I　shall　put　aside　many　names　which　would　be　taken　up　in　a　learned　treatise；　but　which　are　of
  little　value　in　respect　to　Philosophy。　The　history　of　the　dissemination　of　a　doctrine；　its　fate；　those
  who　have　merely　taught　a　particular　doctrine；　I　pass　over；　as　the　deduction　of　the　whole　world
  from　one　particular　principle。
  The　demand　that　in　Philosophy　an　historian　should　have　no　system；　should　put　into　the　philosophy
  nothing　of　his　own；　nor　assail　it　with　his　ideas；　seems　a　plausible　one。　The　history　of　Philosophy
  should　show　just　this　impartiality；　and　it　seems；　in　so　far　that　to　give　only　summaries　of　the
  philosophers　proves　a　success。　He　who　understands　nothing　of　the　matter；　and　has　no　system；　but
  merely　historic　knowledge；　will　certainly　be　impartial。　But　political　history　has　to　be　carefully
  distinguished　from　the　history　of　Philosophy。　That　is　to　say；　though　in　the　former；　one　is　not　indeed
  at　liberty　to　limit　oneself　to　representing　the　events　chronologically　only；　one　can　yet　keep　to　what
  is　entirely　objective；　as　is　done　in　the　Homeric　epic。　Thus　Herodotus　and　Thucydides；　as　free　men；
  let　the　objective　world　do　freely　and　independently　as　it　would；　they　have　added　nothing　of　their
  own；　neither　have　they　taken　and　judged　before　their　tribunal　the　actions　which　they　represented。
  Yet　even　in　political　history　there　is　also　a　particular　end　kept　in　view。　In　Livy　the　main　points　are
  the　Roman　rule；　its　enlargement；　and　the　perfecting　of　the　constitution；　we　see　Rome　arise；　defend
  itself；　and　exercise　its　mastery。　It　is　thus　that　the　self…developing　reason　in　the　history　of　Philosophy
  makes　of　itself　an　end；　and　this　end　is　not　foreign　or　imported；　but　is　the　matter　itself；　which　lies　at
  the　basis　as　universal；　and　with　which　the　individual　forms　of　themselves　correspond。　Thus　when
  the　history　of　Philosophy　has　to　tell　of　deeds　in　history；　we　first　ask；　what　a　deed　in　Philosophy　is；
  and　whether　any　particular　thing　is　philosophic　or　not。　In　external　history　everything　is　in
  action…certainly　there　is　in　it　what　is　important　and　that　which　is　unimportant…but　action　is　the　idea
  immediately　placed　before　us。　This　is　not　the　case　in　Philosophy；　and　on　this　account　the　history　of
  Philosophy　cannot　be　treated　throughout　without　the　introduction　of　the　historian's　views。
  MODERN　PHILOSOPHY
  INTRODUCTION
  IF　we　cast　a　glance　back　over　the　period　just　traversed；　we　find　that　in　it　a　turning…point　had　been
  reached；　that　the　Christian　religion　had　placed　its　absolute　content　in　the　mind　and　will　of　man；　and
  that　it　was　thus；　as　a　divine　and　supersensuous　content；　separated　from　the　world　and　shut　up
  within　itself　in　the　centre…point　of　the　individual。　Over　against　the　religious　life　an　external　world
  stood　as　a　natural　world　…　a　world　of　heart　or　feeling；　of　desire；　of　human　nature　…　which　had　value
  only　in　as　far　as　it　was　overcome。　This　mutual　independence　of　the　two　worlds　had　much　attention
  bestowed　on　it　throughout　the　Middle　Ages；　the　opposition　was　attacked　on　all　quarters　and　in　the
  end　overcome。　But　since　the　relation　of　mankind　to　the　divine　life　exists　upon　earth；　this　conquest
  at　first　presented　the　appearance　of　bringing　with　it　the　destruction　of　the　church　and　of　the　eternal
  through　the　sensuous　desires　of　man。　The　eternal　truth　was　likewise　grafted　upon　the　dry；　formal
  understanding；　so　that　we　might　say　that　the　separation　of　self…consciousness　has　in　itself
  disappeared；　and　thereby　a　possibility　has　been　given　of　obtaining　reconciliation。　But　because　this
  implicit　union　of　the　Beyond　and　the　Here　was　of　so　unsatisfactory　a　nature　that　the　better　feelings
  were　aroused　and　forced　to　turn　against　it；　the　Reformation　made　its　appearance；　partly；　no　doubt；
  as　a　separation　from　the　Catholic　Church；　but　partly　as　a　reformation　from　within。　There　is　a
  mistaken　idea　that　the　Reformation　only　effected　a　separation　from　the　Catholic　Church；　Luther
  just　as　truly　reformed　the　Catholic　Church；　the　corruption　of　which　one　learns　from　his　writings；
  and　from　the　reports　of　the　emperors　and　of　the　empire　to　the　Pope；　if　further　evidence　be
  required；　we　need　only　read　the　accounts　given　even　by　the　Catholic　bishops；　the　Fathers　of　the
  councils　at　Constance；　Basle；　&c。；　of　the　condition　of　the　Catholic　priesthood　and　of　the　Roman
  Court。　The　principle　of　the　inward　reconciliation　of　spirit；　which　was　in　itself　the　very　Idea　of
  Christianity；　was　thus　again　estranged；　and　appeared　as　a　condition　of　external；　unreconciled
  alienation　and　discord；　this　gives　us　an　example　of　the　slow　operation　of　the　world…spirit　in
  overcoming　this　externality。　It　eats　away　the　inward　substance；　but　the　appearance；　the　outward
  form；　still　remains；　at　the　end；　however；　it　is　an　empty　shell；　the　new　form　breaks　forth。　In　such
  times　this　spirit　appears　as　if　it　…　having　so　far　proceeded　in　its　development　at　a　snail's　pace；　and
  having　even　retrograded　and　become　estranged　from　itself　…　had　suddenly　adopted　seven…leagued
  boots。
  Since　thus　the　reconciliation　of　self…consciousness　with　the　present　is　implicitly　accomplished；　man
  has　attained　to　confidence　in　himself　and　in　his　thought；　in　sensuous　nature　outside　of　and　within
  him；　he　has　discovered　an　interest　and　pleasure　in　making　discoveries　both　in　nature　and　the　arts。
  In　the　affairs　of　this　world　the　understanding　developed；　man　became　conscious　of　his　will　and　his
  achievements；　took　pleasure　in　the　earth　and　its　soil；　as　also　in　his　occupations；　because　right　and
  understanding　were　there　present。　With　the　discovery　of　gunpowder　the　individual　passion　of
  battle　was　lost。　The　romantic　impulse　towards　a　casual　kind　of　bravery　passed　into　other
  adventures；　not　of　hate　or　revenge；　or　the　so…called　deliverance　from　what　men　considered　the
  wrongs　of　innocence；　but　more　harmless　adventures；　the　exploration　of　the　earth；　or　the　discovery
  of　the　passage　to　the　East　Indies。　America　was　discovered；　its　treasures　and　people　…　nature；　man
  himself；　navigation　was　the　higher　romance　of　commerce。　The　present　world　was　again　present　to
  man　as　worthy　of　the　interests　of　mind；　thinking　mind　was　again　capable　of　action。　Now　the
  Reformation　of　Luther　had　inevitably　to　come　…　the　appeal　to　the　sensus　communis　which　does
  not　recognize　the　authority　of　the　Fathers　or　of　Aristotle；　but　only　the　inward　personal　spirit　which
  quickens　and　animates；　in　contradistinction　to　works。　In　this　way　the　Church　lost　her　power
  against　it；　for　her　principle　was　within　it　and　no　longer　lacking　to　it。　To　the　finite　and　present　due
  honour　is　accorded；　from　this　honour　the　work　of　science　proceeds。　We　thus　see　that　the　finite；
  the　inward　and　outward　present；　becomes　a　matter　of　experience；　and　through　the　understanding
  is　elevated　into　universality；　men　desire　to　understand　laws　and　forces；　i。e。；　to　transform　the
  individual　of　perceptions　into　the　form　of　universality。　Worldly　matters　demand　to　be　judged　of　in　a
  worldly　way；　the　judge　is　thinking　understanding。　The　other　side　is　that　the　eternal；　which　is　in　and
  for　itself　true；　is　also　known　and　comprehended　through　the　pure　heart　itself；　the　individual　mind
  appropriates　to　itself　the　eternal。　This　is　the　Lutheran　faith　without　any　other　accessories　…　works；
  as　they　were　called。　Everything　had　value　only　as　it　was　grasped　by　the　heart；　and　not　as　a　mere
  thing。　The　content　ceases　to　be　an　objective　thing；　God　is　thus　in　spirit　alone；　He　is　not　a　beyond
  but　the　truest　reality　of　the　individual。
  Pure　thought　is　likewise　one　form　of　inwardness；　it　also　approaches　absolute　existence　and　finds
  itself　justified　in　apprehending　the　same。　The　philosophy　of　modern　times　proceeds　from　the
  principle　which　ancient　philosophy　had　reached；　the　standpoint　of　actual　self…consciousness　…　it　has
  as　principle　the　spirit　that　is　present　to　itself；　it　brings　the　standpoint　of　the　Middle　Ages；　the
  diversity　between　what　is　thought　and　the　existent　universe；　into　opposition；　and　it　has　to　do　with
  the　dissolution　of　this　game　opposition。　The　main　interest　hence　is；　not　so　much　the　thinking　of　the
  objects　in　their　truth；　as　the　thinking　and　understanding　of　the　objects；　the　thinking　this　unity　itself；
  which　is　really　the　being　conscious　of　a　pre…supposed　object。　The　getting　rid　of　the　formal　culture
  of　the　logical　understanding　and　the　monstrosities　of　which　it　was　composed；　was　more　essential
  than　the　extension　of　it：　investigation　in　such　a　case　becomes　dissipated　and　diffused；　and　passes
  into　the　false　infinite。　The　general　points　of　view　which　in　modern　philosophy　we　reach　are　hence
  somewhat　as　follows　：　—
  1。　The　concrete　form　of　thought　which　we　have　here　to　consider　on　its　own　account；　really
  appears　as　subjective　with　the　reflection　of　implicitude；　so　that　this　has　an　antithesis　in　existence；
  and　the　interest　is　then　altogether　found　in　grasping　the　reconciliation　of　this　opposition　in　its　highest
  existence；　i。e。；　in　the　most　abstract　extremes。　This　highest　severance　is　the　opposition　between
  thought　and　Being；　the　comprehending　of　whose　unity　from　this　time　forward　constitutes　the
  interest　of　all　philosophies。　Here　thought　is　more　independent；　and　thus　we　now　abandon　its　unity
  with　theol