determinations。　If　we　merely　look　at　the　name　of　Philosophy；　all　this　matter　will　pertain　to　its
  history。
  I　shall　speak　of　this　material　from　three　points　of　view；　for　three　related　aspects　are　to　be
  eliminated　and　separated　from　Philosophy。　The　first　of　these　is　that　which　is　generally　considered
  to　be　the　domain　of　science；　and　in　which　are　sound　the　beginnings　of　understanding　thought。　The
  second　region　is　that　of　mythology　and　religion；　the　relation　of　Philosophy　to　them　seems　often　to
  be　inimical　both　in　the　time　of　the　Greeks　and　of　the　Christians。　The　third　is　that　of　philosophizing
  and　the　metaphysics　of　the　understanding。　While　we　distinguish　what　is　related　to　Philosophy；　we
  must　also　take　note　of　the　elements　in　this　related　matter　which　belong　to　the　Notion　of
  Philosophy；　but　which　appear　to　us　to　be　partially　separated　from　it：　and　thus　we　may　become
  acquainted　with　the　Notion　of　Philosophy。
  a。　Relation　of　Philosophy　to　Scientific　Knowledge。
  Knowledge　and　thought　certainly　form　the　element　of　whatever　has　to　do　with　particular　sciences
  as　they　form　the　element　of　Philosophy；　but　their　subjects　are　mainly　finite　subjects　and
  appearance。　A　collection　of　facts　known　about　this　content　is　by　its　nature　excluded　from
  Philosophy：　neither　this　content　nor　such　a　form　has　anything　to　do　with　it。　But　even　if　the　sciences
  are　systematic　and　contain　universal　principles　and　laws　from　which　they　proceed；　they　are　still
  related　to　a　limited　circle　of　objects。　The　ultimate　principles　are　assumed　as　are　the　objects
  themselves；　that　is；　the　outward　experience　or　the　feelings　of　the　heart；　natural　or　educated　sense
  of　right　and　duty；　constitute　the　source　from　which　they　are　created。　Logic　and　the　determinations
  and　principles　of　thought　in　general　are　in　their　methods　assumed。
  The　forms　of　thought　or　the　points　of　view　and　principles　which　hold　good　in　the　sciences　and
  constitute　the　ultimate　support　of　all　their　matter；　are　not　peculiar　to　them；　but　are　common　to　the
  condition　and　culture　of　the　time　and　of　the　people。　This　culture　consists　mainly　in　the　general　ideas
  and　aims；　in　the　whole　extent　of　the　particular　intellectual　powers　dominating　consciousness　and
  life。　Our　consciousness　has　these　ideas　and　allows　them　to　be　considered　ultimate　determinations；
  it　makes　use　of　them　as　guiding　and　connecting　links；　but　does　not　know　them　and　does　not　even
  make　them　the　objects　of　its　consideration。　To　give　an　abstract　example；　each　act　of
  consciousness　has　and　requires　the　whole　abstract　thought…determination　of　Being。　〃The　sun　is　in
  the　heavens；　the　bunch　of　grapes　is　ripe；〃　and　so　on　into　infinitude。　Again；　in　a　higher　culture；　such
  relations　as　those　of　cause　and　effect　are　involved；　as　also　those　of　force　and　its　manifestation。　All
  its　knowledge　and　ideas　are　permeated　and　governed　by　a　metaphysic　such　as　this；　it　is　the　net　in
  which　all　the　concrete　matter　which　occupies　mankind　in　action　and　in　impulses；　is　grasped。　But
  this　web　and　its　knots　in　our　ordinary　consciousness　are　sunk　into　a　manifold　material；　for　it
  contains　the　objects　and　interests　which　we　know　and　which　we　have　before　us。　These　common
  threads　are　not　drawn　up　and　made　explicitly　the　objects　of　our　reflection。
  We　Germans　seldom　now　count　general　scientific　knowledge　as　Philosophy。　And　yet　traces　of　this
  are　found；　as　for　instance；　in　the　fact　that　the　philosophic　Faculty　contains　all　the　Sciences　which
  have　not　as　their　immediate　aim　the　Church　and　State。　In　connection　with　this；　the　significance　of
  the　name　of　philosophy；　which　is　even　now　an　important　matter　of　discussion　in　England；　comes　in
  question。　Natural　Sciences　are　in　England　called　Philosophy。　A　〃Philosophic　Journal〃　in　England；
  edited　by　Thompson；　treats　of　Chemistry；　Agriculture；　Manuring；　Husbandry；　Technology；　like
  Hermbst？dt's　Journal；　and　gives　inventions　connected　therewith。　The　English　call　physical
  instruments；　such　as　the　barometer　and　thermometer；　philosophical　instruments。　Theories　too；　and
  especially　morality　and　the　moral　sciences；　which　are　derived　from　the　feelings　of　the　human　heart
  or　from　experience；　are　called　Philosophy；　and　finally　this　is　also　so　with　the　theories　and　principles
  of　Political　Economy。　And　thus　at　least　in　England；　is　the　name　of　Philosophy　respected。　Some
  time　ago　a　banquet　took　place　under　the　presidency　of　Lord　Liverpool；　at　which　the　minister
  Canning　was　also　present。　The　latter　in　returning　thanks　congratulated　England　in　having
  philosophic　principles　of　government　there　brought　into　operation。　There；　at　least；　Philosophy　is　no
  by…word。
  In　the　first　beginnings　of　culture；　however；　we　are　more　often　met　by　this　admixture　of　Philosophy
  and　general　knowledge。　There　comes　a　time　to　a　nation　when　mind　applies　itself　to　universal
  objects；　when；　for　example；　in　seeking　to　bring　natural　things　under　general　modes　of
  understanding；　it　tries　to　learn　their　causes。　Then　it　is　said　that　a　people　begins　to　philosophize；　for
  this　content　has　thought　in　common　with　Philosophy。　At　such　a　time　we　find　deliverances　about　all
  the　common　events　of　Nature；　as　we　also　find　intellectual　maxims；　moral　sentences；　general
  principles　respecting　morality；　the　will；　duty；　and　the　like；　and　those　who　expressed　them　have
  been　called　wise　men　or　philosophers。　Thus　in　the　beginnings　of　Greek　Philosophy　we　find　the
  seven　sages　and　the　Ionic　Philosophers。　From　them　a　number　of　ideas　and　discoveries　are
  conveyed　to　us　which　seem　like　philosophic　propositions。　Thus　Thales；　amongst　others；　has
  explained　that　the　eclipse　of　sun　and　moon　is　due　to　the　intervention　of　the　moon　or　earth。　This　is
  called　a　theorem。　Pythagoras　found　out　the　principle　of　the　harmony　of　sounds。　Others　have　had
  ideas　about　the　stars：　the　heavens　were　supposed　to　be　composed　of　perforated　metal；　by　which
  we　see　throughout　the　empyrean　region；　the　eternal　fire　which　surrounds　the　world。　Such
  propositions　as　products　of　the　understanding；　do　not　belong　to　the　history　of　Philosophy；　although
  they　imply　that　the　merely　sensuous　gaze　has　been　left　behind　as　also　the　representation　of　those
  objects　by　the　imagination　only。　Earth　and　heaven　thus　become　unpeopled　with　gods；　because　the
  understanding　distinguishes　things　in　their　outward　and　natural　qualities　from　Mind。
  In　a　later　time　the　epoch　of　the　revival　in　the　sciences　is　as　noteworthy　in　this　respect。　General
  principles　regarding；　the　state；　&c。；　were　given　expression　to；　and　in　them　a　philosophic　side
  cannot　be　mistaken。　To　this　place　the　philosophic　systems　of　Hobbes　and　Descartes　belong：　the
  writings　of　the　latter　contain　philosophic　principles；　but　his　Philosophy　of　Nature　is　quite　empirical。
  Huge　Grotius　composed　an　international　law　in　which　what　was　historically　held　by　the　people　as
  law；　the　consensus　gentium；　was　a　main　element。　Though　earlier；　medicine　was　a　collection　of
  isolated　facts　and　a　theosophic　combination　mixed　up　with　astrology；　&c。　（it　is　not　so　long　ago
  since　cures　were　effected　by　sacred　relics）；　a　mode　of　regarding　nature　came　into　vogue　according
  to　which　men　went　forth　to　discover　the　laws　and　forces　of　Nature。　The　a　priori　reasoning
  regarding　natural　things；　according　to　the　metaphysics　of　the　Scholastic　Philosophy　or　to　Religion；
  has　now　been　given　up。　The　Philosophy　of　Newton　contains　nothing　but　Natural　Science；　that　is；
  the　knowledge　of　the　laws；　forces；　and　general　constitution　of　Nature；　derived　from　observation
  and　from　experience。　However　much　this　may　seem　to　be　contrary　to　the　principle　of　Philosophy；
  it　has　in　common　with　it　the　fact　that　the　bases　of　both　are　universal；　and　still　further　that　I　have
  made　this　experience；　that　it　rests　on　my　consciousness　and　obtains　its　significance　through　me。
  This　form　is　in　its　general　aspect　antagonistic　to　the　positive；　and　has　come　forward　as　particularly
  opposed　to　Religion　and　to　that　which　is　positive　in　it。　If；　in　the　Middle　Ages；　the　Church　had　its
  dogmas　as　universal　truths；　man；　on　the　contrary；　has　now　obtained　from　the　testimony　of　his　〃own
  thought；〃　feeling　and　ideas；　a　mistrust　of　these。　It　is　merely　to　be　remarked　of　this　that　〃my　own
  thought〃　is　in　itself　a　pleonasm；　because　each　individual　must　think　for　himself；　and　no　one　can　do
  so　for　another。　Similarly　this　principle　has　turned　against　the　recognized　constitutions　and　has
  sought　different　principles　instead；　by　them　to　correct　the　former。　Universal　principles　of　the　State
  have　now　been　laid　down；　while　earlier；　because　religion　was　positive；　the　ground　of　obedience　of
  subjects　to　princes　and　of　all　authority　were　also　so。　Kings；　as　the　anointed　of　the　Lord；　in　the
  sense　that　Jewish　kings　were　so；　derived　their　power　from　God；　and　had　to　give　account　to　Him
  alone；　because　all　authority　is　given　by　God。　So　far　theology　and　jurisprudence　were　on　the　whole
  fixed　and　positive　sciences；　wherever　this　positive　character　might　have　been　derived。　Against　this
  external　authority　reflection　has　been　brought　to　bear；　and　thus；　especially　in　England；　the　source
  of　public　and　civil　law　became　no　longer　mere　authority　derived　from　God　like　the　Mosaic　Law。
  For　the　authority　of　kings　other　justification　was　sought；　such　as　the　end　implied　in