justification；　not　yet　entering　on　the　question　of　whether　they　are　absolutely
  true。　In　the　third　place　we　have　Leibnitz's　monad　…　the　world　viewed　as　a
  totality。
  A。　First　Division
  We　here　encounter　the　innate　ideas　of　Descartes。　The　philosophy　of
  Spinoza；　in　the　second　place；　is　related　to　the　philosophy　of　Descartes
  as　its　necessary　development　only；　the　method　is　an　important　part　of　it。
  A　method　which　stands　alongside　of　Spinozism　and　which　is　also　a
  perfected　development　of　Cartesianism；　is；　in　the　third　place；　that　by
  which　Malebranche　has　represented　this　philosophy。
  1。　Descartes
  2。　Spinoza
  3。　Malebranche
  B。　Second　Division
  It　was　Locke　who　became　the　instrument　of　setting　forth　this　entire
  manner　of　thinking　in　a　systematic　way；　for　he　worked　out　Bacon's
  position　more　fully。　And　if　Bacon　made　sensuous　Being　to　be　the　truth；
  Locke　demonstrated　the　universal；　Thought；　to　be　present　in　sensuous
  Being；　or　showed　that　we　obtained　the　universal；　the　true；　from
  experience。　From　Locke　a　wide　culture　proceeds；　influencing　English
  philosophers　more　especially；　the　forms　adopted　by　this　school　were
  various；　but　the　principle　was　the　same；　it　became　a　general　method　of
  regarding　things　in　a　popular　way；　and　calls　itself　Philosophy；　although
  the　object　of　Philosophy　is　not　to　be　met　with　here。
  1。　Locke
  2。　Hugo　Grotius
  3。　Thomas　Hobbes
  4。　Cudworth；　Clarke；　Wollaston
  5。　Puffendorf
  6。　Newton
  C。　Third　Division
  The　third　development　of　the　philosophy　of　the　understanding　is　that
  represented　by　Leibnitz　and　Wolff。　　If　Wolff's　metaphysics　is　divested
  of　its　rigid　form；　we　have　as　a　result　the　later　popular　philosophy。
  1。　Leibnitz
  2。　Wolff
  3。　German　Popular　Philosophy
  Chapter　II。　…　Transition　Period
  THE　decadence　which　we　find　in　thought　until　the　philosophy　of　Kant　is
  reached；　is　manifested　in　what　was　at　this　time　advocated　in　opposition　to　the
  metaphysic　of　the　understanding；　and　which　may　be　called　a　general　popular
  philosophy；　a　reflecting　empiricism；　which　to　a　greater　or　less　extent　becomes
  itself　a　metaphysic；　just　as；　on　the　other　hand；　that　metaphysic；　in　as　far　as　it
  extended　to　particular　sciences；　becomes　empiricism。　As　against　these
  metaphysical　contradictions；　as　against　the　artificialities　of　the　metaphysical
  synthesis；　as　against　the　assistance　of　God；　the　preestablished　harmony；　the
  best　possible　world；　&c。；　as　against　this　merely　artificial　understanding；　we
  now　find　that　fixed　principles；　immanent　in　mind；　have　been　asserted　or
  maintained　respecting　what　is　felt；　intuitively　perceived　and　honoured　in　the
  cultured　human　breast。　And　in　distinction　to　the　assertion　that　we　only　find　the
  solution　in　the　principles　of　a　fixed　and　permanent　content　form　a　reconciliation
  here　and　now；　they　adopt　a　position　of　independence；　and　assume　an
  intellectual　standing…ground　which　they　find　in　what　has　generally　been　termed
  the　healthy　human　understanding。　Such　determinations　may　indeed　be　found　to
  be　perfectly　good　and　valid　if　the　feelings；　intuitions；　heart　and　understanding
  of　man　be　morally　and　intellectually　fashioned；　for　in　that　case　better　and　more
  noble　feelings　and　desires　may　rule　in　men　and　a　more　universal　content；　may
  be　expressed　in　these　principles。　But　when　men　make　what　we　call　sound
  reason　…　that　which　is　by　nature　implanted　in　man's　breast　…　into　the　content
  and　the　principle；　the　healthy　human　understanding　discovers　itself　to　be
  identical　with　a　feeling　and　knowledge　belonging　to　nature。　The　Indians　who
  worship　a　cow；　and　who　expose　or　slay　newborn　children；　and　commit　all
  sorts　of　barbarous　deeds；　the　Egyptians　who　pray　to　a　bird；　the　apis；　&c。；　and
  the　Turks　as　well；　all　possess　a　healthy　human　understanding　similar　in　nature。
  But　the　healthy　human　understanding　and　the　natural　feeling　of　rude　and
  barbarous　Turks；　when　taken　as　a　standard；　result　in　shocking　principles。
  When　we　speak　of　healthy　human　understanding；　however；　of　natural　feelings；
  we　always　have　before　our　eyes　a　cultured　mind；　and　those　who　make　the
  healthy　human　reason；　the　natural　knowledge；　the　immediate　feelings　and
  inspirations　found　in　themselves；　into　a　rule　and　standard；　do　not　know　that
  when　religion；　morality；　and　rectitude　are　discovered　to　be　present　in　the
  human　breast；　this　is　due　to　culture　and　education；　which　are　the　first　to　make
  such　principles　into　natural　feelings。　Here　natural　feelings　and　the　healthy
  human　understanding　are　thus　made　the　principle；　and　much　may　be
  recognized　as　coming　under　these　heads。　This　then　is　the　form　taken　by
  Philosophy　in　the　eighteenth　century。　Taken　as　a　whole；　three　points　of　view
  have　to　be　considered；　in　the　first　place；　Hume　must　be　regarded　on　his　own
  account；　then　the　Scottish；　and；　thirdly；　the　French　philosophy。　Hume　is　a
  sceptic；　the　Scottish　philosophy　opposes　the　scepticism　of　Hume；　the　French
  philosophy　has　in　the　〃enlightenment〃　of　Germany　（by　which　expression　is
  indicated　that　form　of　German　philosophy　which　is　not　Wolffian　metaphysics）
  an　appendage　of　a　feebler　form。　Since　from　the　metaphysical　God　we　can
  make　no　further　progress　in　the　concrete；　Locke　grounds　his　content　on
  experience。　But　that　empiricism　leads　thought　to　no　fixed　standpoint；　Hume
  demonstrates　by　denying　every　universal；　the　Scottish　philosophers；　on　the
  contrary；　undoubtedly　maintain　universal　propositions　and　truths；　but　not
  through　thought。　Hence　in　empiricism　itself　the　fixed　standpoint　has　now　to　be
  adopted；　thus　the　French　find　the　universal　in　the　actuality　which　they　call
  réalité。　They　do　not；　however；　find　its　content　in　and　from　thought；　but　as
  living　substance；　as　nature　and　matter。　All　this　is　a　further　working　out　of
  reflecting　empiricism；　and　some　more　details　respecting　it　must　still　be　given。
  A。　Idealism　and　Scepticism
  Thought　generally　is　simple；　universal　self…identity；　but　in　the　form　of
  negative　movement；　whereby　the　determinate　abrogates　itself。　This
  movement　of　Being…for…self　is　now　an　essential　moment　of　thought；
  while　hitherto　it　was　outside　it；　and　thus　grasping　itself　as　movement　in
  itself；　thought　is　self…consciousness　…　at　first　indeed　formal；　as　individual
  self…consciousness。　Such　a　form　it　has　in　scepticism；　but　this　distinction
  marks　it　off　from　the　older　scepticism；　that　now　the　certainty　of　reality　is
  made　the　starting　point。　With　the　ancients；　on　the　contrary；　scepticism　is
  the　return　into　individual　consciousness　in　such　a　way　that　to　it　this
  consciousness　is　not　the　truth；　in　other　words　that　scepticism　does　not
  give　expression　to　the　results　arrived　at；　and　attains　no　positive
  significance。　But　since　in　the　modern　world　this　absolute　substantiality；
  this　unity　of　implicitude　and　self…consciousness　is　fundamental　…　that　is；
  this　faith　in　reality　generally　…　scepticism　has　here　the　form　of　idealism；
  i。e。；　of　expressing　self…consciousness　or　certainty　of　self　as　all　reality
  and　truth。　The　crudest　form　of　this　idealism　is　when　self…consciousness；
  as　individual　or　formal；　does　not　proceed　further　than　to　say：　All　objects
  are　our　conceptions。　We　find　this　subjective　idealism　in　Berkeley；　（1）
  and　another　form　of　the　same　in　Hume。
  1。　Berkeley
  2。　Hume
  B。　Scottish　Philosophy
  In　Scotland　quite　another　school