〃to　do　without　ado〃　or　〃to　act　without　acting〃　（viz。；　without　posing）；　were　it　not　for　the　fact　that　the　moral　element　is　uppermost　in　Lao…tze's　mind。　He　denounces　the　vanity　of　self…display　and　egotism；　and　so　we　believe　that　wei　wu　wei　is　best　rendered　by　〃acting　with　non…assertion。〃　The　meaning　is　clear　through　the　context；　and　there　is　no　need　of　interpreting　Lao…tze's　words　either　in　a　mystical　or　a　quietist　sense。
  There　are　three　negatives　in　Chinese：　pu；　〃not；〃　the　simple　negation；　wu；　〃lacking　in；　non…existent；　without〃；　and　fei；　〃by　no　means。〃　Though　we　can　not　lay　down　a　general　rule　about　their　distinctions；　there　are　different　shades　of　meaning　according　to　the　context　which　we　have　tried　to　bring　out　in　our　English　version。　Sometimes　the　meaning　of　the　negated　word；　or　the　ironic　sense　in　which　it　is　used；　influences　the　negative。　In　Chapter　49　pu　shan；　〃ungoodness〃；　means　〃evil；〃　but　in　Chapter　38；　pu　teh；　〃unvirtue；〃　means　that　higher　virtue　which　makes　no　show　and　does　not　even　assume　the　name。　In　Chapter　57　wu　shi；　〃non…diplomacy；〃　is　that　higher　mode　of　statesmanship　with　which　a　good　ruler　will　unostentatiously　govern　the　empire。　On　the　other　hand　Lao…tze　speaks　of　both　fei　tao；　i。　e。；　〃lack　of　reason〃　or　〃anti…reason〃　（Chapter　53）　and　pu　tao　（Chapters　30　and　55）　〃unreason；〃　which　soon　ceases；　while　〃the　reason　that　can　be　reasoned〃　（tao　ko　tao）　is　declared　to　be　〃by　no　means　the　eternal　Reason　（fei　ch慳ng　tao）。〃
  The　term　wu；　〃non…existence〃　（Chapter　40）；　is　not　annihilation　but　denotes　absence　of　concrete　particularity　or　of　materiality。　It　is　intended　to　describe　what　we　would　call　the　purely　formal；　including　purely　formal　thought；　viz。；　the　prototypes　of　things　as　well　as　ideals。　Materiality　makes　things　real　but　non…materiality；　as　set　forth　in　Chapter　11；　while　giving　shape　to　things　by　cutting　away　certain　portions；　renders　them　useful。
  Lao…tze's　appreciation　of　oneness　is　to　be　expected　of　a　philosopher　of　the　Tao；　of　Divine　Reason。　He　speaks　of　oneness　15　as　giving　character　to　things　that　are　units　（Chapter　39）　and　unity　cannot　be　disintegrated　（Chapter　10）。
  Lao…tze's　reference　to　trinity　as　begetting　all　things　（Chapter　42）　is；　to　say　the　least。　curious；　perhaps　profound；　and　Christians　will　also　be　interested　in　the　idea　that　the　Son　of　Heaven　as　the　High　Priest　of　the　people　must　bear　the　sins　of　mankind　（Chapter　78）。
  Lao…tze's　style　is　characterized　by　paradox　as　in　〃do　without　ado〃　（commonly　translated　〃act　with　non…assertion〃　as　in　Chapters　2；　3；　10；　etc。）；　〃know　the　unknowable；〃　〃be　sick　of　sickness〃　（Chapter　71）；　〃practice　non…practice；〃　〃taste　the　tasteless〃　（Chapter　63）；　〃marching　without　marching〃　（Chapter　69）。　Similarly　the　phrases　〃the　form　of　the　formless〃　and　〃the　image　of　the　imageless〃　（Chapter　14）　etc。　are　used　to　describe　what　Kant　calls　〃pure　form；〃　i。　e。；　non…material　or　ideal　forms　such　as　geometrical　figures；　and　which　corresponds　to　the　Buddhist　term　arupo；　〃the　formless；〃　in　the　sense　of　〃the　bodiless。〃
  Undoubtedly　the　best　sayings　of　Lao…tze　are：　〃Requite　hatred　with　goodness〃　（Chapter　63）；　and　〃The　good　I　meet　with　goodness；　the　bad　I　also　meet　with　goodness　。　。　。　。　The　faithful　I　meet　with　faith；　the　faithless　I　also　meet　with　faith〃　（Chapter　49）。
  Other　remarkable　ideas　of　Lao…tze　are　his　preference　for　simplicity　（Chapters　17；　28；　37；　57）；　for　purity　（Chapter　45）；　for　emptiness　（Chapters　3；　4；　5）；　for　rest　and　peace　（Chapter　31）；　for　silence　（Chapters　2；　23；　43；　56）；　for　tenderness　（Chapters　52；　76；　78）；　especially　the　tenderness　of　water　（Chapter　78）；　for　weakness　（Chapters　36；　40）　for　compassion　（Chapter　67）；　for　lowliness　or　humility　（Chapter　61）；　for　thrift　（Chapter　59）；　for　returning　home　to　the　Tao　（Chapters　25；　40）；　for　spontaneity　or　lack　of　effort　（Chapter　6）；　etc。
  He　is　against　restrictions　and　prohibitions　as　producing　disorder　（Chapter　57）；　against　ostentation　（Chapter　58）；　against　learnedness　as　unwisdom　（Chapter　81）。　He　believes　that　the　Tao　when　sought　is　found　（Chapter　62）；　and　he　praises　the　state　of　a　little　child　（Chapters　10；　28；　55）。　He　compares　himself　to　a　babe　（Chapter　20）　and　calls　himself　the　child　or　son　of　the　Tao　and　the　Tao　his　mother　（Chapter　52）；　on　the　other　hand　the　sage　looks　upon　the　people　as　children　（Chapter　49）。
  Heaven's　impartiality　（Chapter　79）　which　shows　no　preference　to　favorites　is　expected　of　the　sage　by　Lao…tze　who　praises　the　emptiness　of　heaven　（Chapter　5）；　the　lowliness　of　the　valley　（Chapters　32；　39；　41；　66）；　and　the　stretching　of　the　bow　which　brings　down　the　high　and　raises　the　low　（Chapter　77）；　etc。
  Though　the　Tao；　being　an　abstract　philosophical　principle；　seems　to　leave　no　room　for　a　belief　in　God；　Lao…tze　refers　repeatedly　to　God；　first　identifying　God　with　Reason　as　〃the　arch…father　of　the　ten　thousand　things；〃　（Chapter　4）；　and　then　he　speaks　of　Reason　as　preceding　even　〃the　Lord〃　（Chapter　4）。　In　Chapter　70　he　calls　the　Tao　〃the　ancestor　of　words〃　and　〃the　master　of　deeds〃　which　also　personifies　Reason。　The　passage　where　he　speaks　of　〃the　father　of　the　doctrine〃　（Chapter　42）　may　be　doubtful；　for　the　commentators　explain　it　to　mean　〃the　foundation　of　the　doctrine〃；　but　the　idea　of　calling　the　Tao　the　father　of　truth　is　not　contrary　to　Lao…tze's　thought；　for　he　speaks　of　the　Tao　twice　as　the　〃mother〃　（Chapters　20　and　52）　and　once　as　〃the　world's　mother〃　（Chapter　52）。　In　Chapter　74；　when　referring　to　divine　justice　cutting　short　the　lives　of　men；　the　Tao　is　compared　to　〃the　great　carpenter　who　hews。〃　All　these　passages　are　figures　of　speech；　but　are　not　the　Christian　ideas　of　God　as　a　Lord；　as　a　father；　as　an　architect　（as　the　Freemasons　have　it）；　also　allegories？
  1
  Reason's　Realization
  The　Reason　that　can　be　reasoned　is　not　the　eternal　Reason。　The　name　that　can　be　named　is　not　the　eternal　Name。　The　Unnamable　is　of　heaven　and　earth　the　beginning。　The　Namable　becomes　of　the　ten　thousand　things　the　mother。
  Therefore　it　is　said：
  〃He　who　desireless　is　found
  The　spiritual　of　the　world　will　sound。
  But　he　who　by　desire　is　bound
  Sees　the　mere　shell　of　things　around。〃
  These　two　things　are　the　same　in　source　but　different　in　name。　Their　sameness　is　called　a　mystery。　Indeed；　it　is　the　mystery　of　mysteries。　Of　all　spirituality　it　is　the　door。
  2
  Self…Culture
  Everywhere　it　is　obvious　that　if　beauty　makes　a　display　of　beauty；　it　is　sheer　ugliness。　It　is　obvious　that　if　goodness　makes　a　display　of　goodness；　it　is　sheer　badness。　For
  〃To　be　and　not　to　be　are　mutually　conditioned。
  The　difficult；　the　easy；　are　mutually　definitioned。
  The　long；　the　short；　are　mutually　exhibitioned。
  Above；　below；　are　mutually　cognitioned。
  The　sound；　the　voice；　are　mutually　coalitioned。
  Before　and　after　are　mutually　positioned。〃
  Therefore
  The　holy　man　abides　by　non…assertion　in　his　affairs　and　conveys　by　silence　his　instruction。　When　the　ten　thousand　things　arise；　verily；　he　refuses　them　not。　He　quickens　but　owns　not。　He　acts　but　claims　not。　Merit　he　accomplishes；　but　he　does　not　dwell　on　it。
  〃Since　he　does　not　dwell　on　it
  It　will　never　leave　him。〃
  3
  Keeping　the　People　Quiet
  Not　boasting　of　one's　worth　forestalls　people's　envy。
  Not　prizing　treasures　difficult　to　obtain　keeps　people　from　committing　theft。
  Not　contemplating　what　kindles　desire　keeps　the　heart　unconfused。
  Therefore　the　holy　man　when　he　governs　empties　the　people's　hearts　but　fills　their　stomachs。　He　weakens　their　ambition　but　strengthens　their　bones。　Always　he　keeps　the　people　unsophisticated　and　without　desire。　He　causes　that　the　crafty　do　not　dare　to　act。　When　he　acts　with　non…assertion　there　is　nothing　ungoverned。
  4
  Sourceless
  Reason　is　empty；　but　its　use　is　inexhaustible。　In　its　profundity；　verily；　it　resembleth　the　arch…father　of　the　ten　thousand　things。
  〃It　will　blunt　its　own　sharpness；
  Will　its　tangles　adjust；
  It　will　dim　its　own　radiance
  And　be　one　with　its　dust。〃
  Oh；　how　calm　it　seems　to　remain！　I　know　not　whose　son　it　is。　Apparently　even　the　Lord　it　precedes。
  5
  The　Function　of　Emptiness
  But　for　heaven　and　earth's　humaneness；　the　ten　thousand　things　are　straw　dogs。　But　for　the　holy　man's　humaneness；　the　hundred　families　are　straw　dogs。
  Is　not　the　space　between　heaven　and　earth　like　unto　a　bellows？　It　is　empty；　yet　it　collapses　not。　It　moves；　and　more　and　more　comes　forth。＇But＇
  〃How　soon　exhausted　is
  A　gossip's　fulsome　talk！
  And　should　we　not　prefer
  On　the　middle　path　to　walk？〃
  6
  The　Completion　of　Form
  〃The　valley　spirit　not　expires；
  Mysterious　woman　抰is　called　by　the　sires。
  The　mysterious　woman's　door；　to　boot；
  Is　called　of　heaven　and　earth　the　root。
  Forever　and　aye　it　seems　to　endure
  And　its　use　is　without　effort　sure。〃
  7
  Dimming　Radiance
  Heaven　endures　and　earth　is　lasting。　And　why　can　heaven　and　earth　endure　and　be　lasting？　Because　they　do　not　live　for　themselves。　On　that　account　can　they　endure。
  Therefore
  The　holy　man　puts　his　person　behind　and　his　person　comes