observe　that；　when　completed；　its　effect　was　to　make　the　Land　the
  exclusive　bond　of　union　between　men。　The　Manor　or　Fief　was　a
  social　group　wholly　based　upon　the　possession　of　land；　and　the
  vast　body　of　feudal　rules　which　clustered　round　this　central　fact
  are　coloured　by　it　throughout。　That　the　Land　is　the　foundation　of
  the　feudal　system　has；　of　course；　been　long　and　fully　recognised；
  but　I　doubt　whether　the　place　of　the　fact　in　history　has　been
  sufficiently　understood。　It　marks　a　phase　in　a　course　of　change
  continued　through　long　ages　and　in　spheres　much　larger　than　that
  of　landed　property。　At　this　point　the　notion　of　common　kinship
  has　been　entirely　lost。　The　link　between　Lord　and　Vassal　produced
  by　Commendation　is　of　quite　a　different　kind　from　that　produced
  by　Consanguinity。　When　the　relation　which　it　created　had　lasted
  some　time；　there　would　have　been　no　deadlier　insult　to　the　lord
  than　to　attribute　to　him　a　common　origin　with　the　great　bulk　of
  his　tenants。　Language　still　retains　a　tinge　of　the　hatred　and
  contempt　with　which　the　higher　members　of　the　feudal　groups
  regarded　the　lower；　and　the　words　of　abuse　traceable　to　this
  aversion　are　almost　as　strong　as　those　traceable　to　differences
  of　religious　belief。　There　is；　in　fact；　little　to　choose　between
  villain；　churl；　miscreant；　and　boor。
  The　break…up　of　the　feudal　group；　far　advanced　in　most
  European　countries；　and　complete　in　France　and　England；　has
  brought　us　to　the　state　of　society　in　which　we　live。　To　write　its
  course　and　causes　would　be　to　re…write　most　of　modern　history；
  economical　as　well　as　political。　It　is　not；　however；　difficult　to
  see　that　without　the　ruin　of　the　smaller　social　groups；　and　the
  decay　of　the　authority　which；　whether　popularly　or　autocratically
  governed；　they　possessed　over　the　men　composing　them；　we　should
  never　have　had　several　great　conceptions　which　lie　at　the　base　of
  our　stock　of　thought。　Without　this　collapse；　we　should　never　have
  had　the　conception　of　land　as　an　exchangeable　commodity；
  differing　only　from　others　in　the　limitation　of　the　supply；　and
  hence；　without　it；　some　famous　chapters　of　the　science　of
  Political　economy　would　not　have　been　written。　Without　it；　we
  should　not　have　had　the　great　increase　in　modern　times　of　the
  authority　of　the　State…one　of　many　names　for　the　more　extensive
  community　held　together　by　common　country。　Consequently；　we
  should　not　have　had　those　theories　which　are　the　foundation　of
  the　most　recent　systems　of　jurisprudence　　the　theory　of
  Sovereignty；　or　（in　other　words）　of　a　portion　in　each　community
  possessing　unlimited　coercive　force　over　the　rest　　and　the
  theory　of　Law　as　exclusively　the　command　of　a　sovereign　One　or
  Number。　We　should；　again；　not　have　had　the　fact　which　answers　to
  these　theories　　the　ever…increasing　activity　of　Legislatures；
  and；　in　all　probability；　that　famous　test　of　the　value　of
  legislation；　which　its　author　turned　into　a　test　of　the　soundness
  of　morals；　would　never　have　been　devised　　the　greatest
  happiness　of　the　greatest　number。
  In　saying　that　the　now　abundant　phenomena　of　primitive
  ownership　open　to　our　observation　strongly　suggest　that　the
  earliest　cultivating　groups　were　formed　of　kinsmen；　that　these
  gradually　became　bodies　of　men　held　together　by　the　land　which
  they　cultivated；　and　that　Property　in　Land　（as　we　now　understand
  it）　grew　out　of　the　dissolution　of　these　latter　assemblages；　I
  would　not　for　a　moment　be　understood　to　assert　that　this　series
  of　changes　can　be　divided　into　stages　abruptly　separated　from　one
  another。　The　utmost　that　can　be　affirmed　is　that　certain　periods
  in　this　history　are　distinguished　by　the　predominance；　though　not
  the　exclusive　existence；　of　ideas　proper　to　them。　Here；　as
  elsewhere；　the　world　is　full　of　'survivals；'　and　the　view　of
  society　as　held　together　by　kinship　still　survives　when　it　is
  beginning　to　be　held　together　by　land。　Similarly；　the　feudal
  conception　of　social　relations　still　exercises。　powerful
  influence　when　land　has　become　a　merchantable　commodity。　There　is
  no　country　in　which　the　theory　of　land　as　a　form　of　property　like
  any　other　has　been　more　unreservedly　accepted　than　our　own。　Yet
  English　lawyers　live　in　faece　feodorum。　Our　law　is　saturated　with
  feudal　principles；　and　our　customs　and　opinions　are　largely
  shaped　by　them。　Indeed；　within　the　last　few　years　we　have　even
  discovered　that　vestiges　of　the　village…community　have　not　been
  wholly　effaced　from　our　law；　our　usages；　and　our　methods　of
  tillage。
  The　caution　that　the　sequence　of　these　stages　does　not　imply
  abrupt　transition　from　any　one　to　the　next　seems　to　me　especially
  needed　by　the　student　of　the　Ancient　Laws　of　Ireland。　Dr
  Sullivan；　of　whose　Introduction　to　the　lately　published　lectures
  of　O'Curry　I　have　already　spoken；　dwells　with　great　emphasis　on
  the　existence　of　private　property　among　the　ancient　Irish；　and　on
  the　jealousy　with　which　it　was　guarded。　But　though　it　is　very
  natural　that　a　learned　Irishman；　stung　by　the　levity　which　has
  denied　to　his　ancestors　all　civilised　institutions；　should　attach
  great　importance　to　the　indications　of　private　ownership　in　the
  Brehon　law；　I　must　say　that　they　do　not；　in　my　judgment；
  constitute　its　real　interest。　The　instructiveness　of　the　Brehon
  tracts；　at　least　to　the　student　of　legal　history；　seems　to　me　to
  arise　from　their　showing　that　institutions　of　modern　stamp　may　be
  in　existence　with　a　number　of　rules　by　their　side　which　savour　of
  another　and　a　greatly　older　order　of　ideas。　It　cannot　be　doubted；
  I　think；　that　the　primitive　notion　of　kinship；　as　the　cement
  binding　communities　together；　survived　longer　among　the　Celts　of
  Ireland　and　the　Scottish　Highlands　than　in　any　Western　society；
  and　that　it　is　stamped　on　the　Brehon　law　even　more　clearly　than
  it　is　upon　the　actual　land…law　of　India。　It　is　perfectly　true
  that　the　form　of　private　ownership　in　land　which　grew　out　of　the
  appropriation　of　portions　of　the　tribal　domain　to　individual
  households　of　tribesmen　is　plainly　recognised　by　the　Brehon
  lawyers；　yet　the　rights　of　private　owners　are　limited　by　the
  controlling　rights　of　a　brotherhood　of　kinsmen；　and　the　control
  is　in　some　respects　even　more　stringent　than　that　exercised　over
  separate　property　by　an　indian　village…community。　It　is　also　true
  that　another　form　of　ownership　in　land；　that　which　had　its　origin
  in　the　manorial　authority　of　the　lord　over　the　cultivating　group；
  has　also　begun　to　show　itself；　yet；　though　the　Chief　of　the　Clan
  is　rapidly　climbing　to　a　position　answering　to　the　Lordship　of　a
  Manor；　he　has　not　fully　ascended　to　it；　and　the　most　novel
  information　contained　in　the　tracts　is　that　which　they　supply
  concerning　the　process　of　ascent。
  The　first　instructive　fact　which　strikes　us　on　the　threshold
  of　the　Brehon　law　is；　that　the　same　word；　'Fine；'　or　Family；　is
  applied　to　all　the　subdivisions　of　Irish　society。　It　is　used　for
  the　Tribe　in　its　largest　extension　as　pretending　to　some　degree
  of　political　independence；　and　for　all　intermediate　bodies　down
  to　the　Family　as　we　understand　it；　and　even　for　portions　of　the
  Family　（Sullivan；　'Introduction；　clxii）。　It　seems　certain　that
  each　of　the　various　groups　into　which　ancient　Celtic　society　was
  divided　conceived　itself　as　descended　from　some　one　common
  ancestor；　from　whom　the　name；　or　one　of　the　names；　of　the　entire
  body　of　kinsmen　was　derived。　Although　this　assumption　was　never
  in　ancient　Ireland　so　palpable　a　fiction　as　the　affiliation　of
  Greek　races　or　communities　on　an　heroic　eponymous　progenitor；　it
  was　probably　at　most　true　of　the　Chief　and　his　house　so　far　as
  regarded　the　Irish　Tribe　taken　as　a　political　unit。　But　it　is
  probable　that　it　was　occasionally；　and　even　often　true　of　the
  s