in　1500　they　had　been　accounted　ancient。　These　House…Communities
  seem　to　me　to　be　simply　the　Joint…Family　of　the　Hindoos；　allowed
  to　expand　itself　without　hindrance　and　settled　for　ages　on　the
  land。　All　the　chief　characteristics　of　the　Hindoo　institution　are
  here　　the　common　home　and　common　table；　which　we　always　in
  theory　the　centre　of　Hindoo　family　life；　the　collective　enjoyment
  of　property　and　its　administration　by　an　elected　manager。
  Nevertheless；　many　instructive　change　s　have　begun　which　show　how
  such　a　group　modifies　itself　in　time　The　community　is　a　community
  of　kinsmen；　but；　though　the　com　m　on　ancestry　is　probably　to　a
  great　extent　real；　the　tradition　has　become　weak　enough　to　admit
  of　considerable　artificiality　being　introduced　into　the
  association；　as　it　is　found　at　any　given　moment；　through　the
  absorption　of　strangers　from　outside。　Meantime；　the　land　tends　to
  become　the　true　basis　of　the　group；　it　is　recognized　as　of
  pre…eminent　importance　to　its　vitality；　and　it　remains　common
  property；　while　private　ownership　is　allowed　to　show　itself　in
  moveables　and　cattle。　In　the　true　Village…Community；　the　common
  dwelling　and　common　table　which　belong　alike　to　the　Joint　Family
  and　to　the　House…Community；　are　no　longer　to　be　found。　The
  village　itself　is　an　assemblage　of　houses；　contained　indeed
  within　narrow　limits；　but　composed　of　separate　dwellings；　each
  jealously　guarded　from　the　intrusion　of　a　neighbour。　The　village
  lands　are　no　longer　the　collective　property　of　the　community；　the
  arable　lands　have　been　divided　between　the　various　households；
  the　pasture　lands　have　been　partially　divided；　only　the　waste
  remains　in　common。　In　comparing　the　two　extant　types　of
  Village…Community　which　have　been　longest　examined　by　good
  observers；　the　Russian　and　the　Indian；　we　may　be　led　to　think
  that　the　traces　left　on　usage　and　idea　by　the　ancient　collective
  enjoyment　are　faint　exactly　in　proportion　to　the　decay　of　the
  theory　of　actual　kinship　among　the　co…villagers。　The　Russian
  peasants　of　the　same　village　really　believe；　we　are　told；　in
  their　common　ancestry；　and　accordingly　we　find　that　in　Russia　the
  arable　lands　of　the　village　are　periodically　re…distributed；　and
  that　the　village　artificer；　even　should　he　carry　his　tools　to　a
  distance；　works　for　the　profit　of　his　co…villagers。　In　India；
  though　the　villagers　are　still　a　brotherhood；　and　though
  membership　in　the　brotherhood　separates　a　man　from　the　world
  outside；　it　is　very　difficult　to　say　in　what　the　tie　is　conceived
  as　consisting。　Many　palpable　facts　in　the　composition　of　the
  community　are　constantly　inconsistent　with　the　actual　descent　of
  the　villagers　from　any　one　ancestor。　Accordingly；　private
  property　in　land　has　grown　up；　though　its　outlines　are　not　always
  clear；　the　periodical　re…division　of　the　domain　has　become　a　mere
  tradition；　or　is　only　practised　among　the　ruder　portions　of　the
  race；　and　the　results　of　the　theoretical　kinship　are　pretty　much
  confined　to　the　duty　of　submitting　to　common　rules　of　cultivation
  and　pasturage；　of　abstaining　from　sale　or　alienation　without　the
  consent　of　the　co…villagers；　and　（according　to　some　opinions）　of
  refraining　from　imposing　a　rack…rent　upon　members　of　the　same
  brotherhood。　Thus；　the　Indian　Village…Community　is　a　body　of　men
  held　together　by　the　land　which　they　occupy：　the　idea　of　common
  blood　and　descent　has　all　but　died　out。　A　few　steps　more　in　the
  same　course　of　development　　and　these　the　English　law　is
  actually　hastening　　will　diffuse　the　familiar　ideas　of　our　own
  country　and　time　throughout　India；　the　Village…Community　will
  disappear；　and　landed　property；in　the　full　English　sense；　will
  come　into　existence。　Mr　Freeman　tells　us　that　Uffington；
  Gillingham；　and　Tooting　were　in　all　probability　English
  village…communities　originally　settled　by　the　Uffingas；
  Gillingas；　and　Totingas；　three　Teutonic　joint…families。　But
  assuredly　all　men　who　live　in　Tooting　do　not　consider　themselves
  brothers；　they　barely　acknowledge　duties　imposed　on　them　by　their
  mutual　vicinity；　their　only　real　tie　is　through　their　common
  country。
  The　'natural　communism'　of　the　primitive　cultivating　groups
  has　sometimes　been　described　of　late　years；　and　more　particularly
  by　Russian　writers；　as　an　anticipation　of　the　most　advanced　and
  trenchant　democratic　theories。　No　account　of　the　matter　could　in
  my　judgment　be　more　misleading。　If　such　terms　as　'aristocratic'
  and　'democratic'　are　to　be　used　at　all；　I　think　it　would　be　a
  more　plausible　statement　that　the　transformation　and　occasional
  destruction　of　the　village…communities　were　caused；　over　much　of
  the　world；　by　the　successful　assault　of　a　democracy　on　an
  aristocracy。　The　secret　of　the　comparatively　slight　departure　of
  the　Russian　village…communities　from　what　may　be　believed　to　have
  been　the　primitive　type；　appears　to　me　to　lie　in　the　ancient
  Russian　practice　of　colonisation；　by　which　swarms　were　constantly
  thrown　off　from　the　older　villages　to　settle　somewhere　in　the
  enormous　wastes；　but　the　Indian　communities；　placed　in　a　region
  of　which　the　population　has　from　time　immemorial　been　far　denser
  than　in　the　North；　bear　many　marks　of　past　contests　between　the
  ancient　brotherhood　of　kinsmen　and　a　class　of　dependants　outside
  it　struggling　for　a　share　in　the　land；　or　for　the　right　to　use　it
  on　easy　terms。　I　am　aware　that　there　is　some　grotesqueness　at
  first　sight　in　a　comparison　of　Indian　villagers；　in　their
  obscurity　and　ignorance；　and　often　in　their　squalid　misery；　to
  the　citizens　of　Athens　or　Rome；　yet　no　tradition　concerning　the
  origin　of　the　Latin　and　Hellenic　states　seems　more　trustworthy
  than　that　which　represents　them　as　formed　by　the　coalescence　of
  two　or　more　village…communities；　and　indeed；　even　in　their　most
  glorious　forms；　they　appear　to　me　throughout　their　early　history
  to　belong　essentially　to　that　type。　It　has　often　occurred　to　me
  that　Indian　functionaries；　in　their　vehement　controversies　about
  the　respective　rights　of　the　various　classes　which　make　up　the
  village…community；　are　unconsciously　striving　to　adjust；　by　a
  beneficent　arbitration；　the　claims　and　counter…claims　of　the
  Eupatrids　and　the　Demos；　of　the　Populus　and　the　Plebs。　There　is
  even　reason　to　think　that　one　well…known　result　of　long　civil
  contention　in　the　great　states　of　antiquity　has　shown　itself
  every　now　and　then　in　the　village…communities；　and　that　all
  classes　have　had　to　submit　to　that　sort　of　authority　which
  assumed　its　most　innocent　shape　in　the　office　of　the　Roman
  Dictator；　its　more　odious　in　the　usurpation　of　the　Greek　Tyrant。
  The　founders　of　a　part　of　one　modern　European　aristocracy；　the
  Danish；　are　known　to　have　been　originally　peasants　who　fortified
  their　houses　during　deadly　village　struggles　and　then　used　their
  advantage。
  Such　commencements　of　nobility　as　that　to　which　I　have　just
  referred；　appear；　however；　to　have　been　exceptional　in　the
  Western　world；　and　other　causes　must　be　assigned　for　that　great
  transformation　of　the　Village…Community　which　has　been　carried
  out　everywhere　in　England；　a　little　less　completely　in　Germany；
  much　less　in　Russia　and　in　all　Eastern　Europe。　I　have　attempted
  in　another　work　（'Village…Communities　in　the　East　and　West；'　pp。
  131　et　seq。）　to　give　an　abridged　account　of　all　that　is　known　or
  has　been　conjectured　on　the　subject　of　that　'Feudalisation　of
  Europe'　which　has　had　the　effect　of　converting　the　Mark　into　the
  Manor；　the　Village…Community　into　the　Fief；　and　I　shall　presently
  say　much　on　the　new　light　which　the　ancient　laws　of　Ireland　have
  thrown　on　the　early　stages　of　the　process。　At　present　I　will　only
  observe　that；　when　completed；　its　effect　was　to　make　the　Land　the
  exclusive　bond　of　union　between　men。　The　Manor　or　Fief　was　a