would　be　less　by　just　that　sum：　competition　would　still　reduce
  them　to　the　lowest　rate　at　which　life　was　possible。　Similarly　the
  lower　orders　agitated　for　the　repeal　of　the　corn　laws；（12*）
  thinking　they　would　be　better　off　if　bread　were　cheaper；　never
  perceiving　that　as　soon　as　bread　was　permanently　cheaper；　wages
  would　permanently　fall　in　precisely　that　proportion。　The　corn
  laws　were　rightly　repealed；　not；　however；　because　they　directly
  oppressed　the　poor；　but　because　they　indirectly　oppressed　them　in
  causing　a　large　quantity　of　their　labour　to　be　consumed
  unproductively。　So　also　unnecessary　taxation　oppresses　them；
  through　destruction　of　capital；　but　the　destiny　of　the　poor
  depends　primarily　always　on　this　one　question　of　dueness　of
  wages。　Their　distress　（irrespectively　of　that　caused　by　sloth；
  minor　error；　or　crime）　arises　on　the　grand　scale　from　the　two
  reacting　forces　of　competition　and　oppression。　There　is　not　yet；
  nor　will　yet　for　ages　be；　any　real　over…population　in　the　world；
  but　a　local　over…population；　or；　more　accurately；　a　degree　of
  population　locally　unmanageable　under　existing　circumstances　for
  want　of　forethought　and　sufficient　machinery；　necessarily　shows
  itself　by　pressure　of　competition；　and　the　taking　advantage　of
  this　competition　by　the　purchaser　to　obtain　their　labour　unjustly
  cheap；　consummates　at　once　their　suffering　and　his　own；　for　in
  this　（as　I　believe　in　every　other　kind　of　slavery）　the　oppressor
  suffers　at　last　more　than　the　oppressed；　and　those　magnificent
  lines　of　Pope；　even　in　all　their　force；　fall　short　of　the　truth
  〃Yet；　to　be　just　to　these　poor　men　of　pelf；
  Each　does　but　HATE　HIS　NEIGHBOUR　AS　HIMSELF：
  Damned　to　the　mines；　an　equal　fate　betides
  The　slave　that　digs　it；　and　the　slave　that　hides。〃
  The　collateral　and　reversionary　operations　of　justice　in　this
  matter　I　shall　examine　hereafter　（it　being　needful　first　to
  define　the　nature　of　value）；　proceeding　then　to　consider　within
  what　practical　terms　a　juster　system　may　be　established；　and
  ultimately　the　vexed　question　of　the　destinies　of　the　unemployed
  workmen。（13*）　Lest；　however；　the　reader　should　be　alarmed　at　some
  of　the　issues　to　which　our　investigations　seem　to　be　tending；　as
  if　in　their　bearing　against　the　power　of　wealth　they　had
  something　in　common　with　those　of　socialism；　I　wish　him　to　know
  in　accurate　terms；　one　or　two　of　the　main　points　which　I　have　in
  view。
  Whether　socialism　has　made　more　progress　among　the　army　and
  navy　（where　payment　is　made　on　my　principles）；　or　among　the
  manufacturing　operatives　（who　are　paid　on　my　opponents'
  principles）；　I　leave　it　to　those　opponents　to　ascertain　and
  declare。　Whatever　their　conclusion　may　be；　I　think　it　necessary
  to　answer　for　myself　only　this：　that　if　there　be　any　one　point
  insisted　on　throughout　my　works　more　frequently　than　another；
  that　one　point　is　the　impossibility　of　Equality。　My　continual　aim
  has　been　to　show　the　eternal　superiority　of　some　men　to　others；
  sometimes　even　of　one　man　to　all　others；　and　to　show　also　the
  advisability　of　appointing　such　persons　or　person　to　guide；　to
  lead；　or　on　occasion　even　to　compel　and　subdue；　their　inferiors；
  according　to　their　own　better　knowledge　and　wiser　will。　My
  principles　of　Political　Economy　were　all　involved　in　a　single
  phrase　spoken　three　years　ago　at　Manchester。　〃Soldiers　of　the
  Ploughshare　as　well　as　soldiers　of　the　Sword：〃　and　they　were　all
  summed　in　a　single　sentence　in　the　last　volume　of　Modern　Painters
  〃Government　and　co…operation　are　in　all　things　the　Laws　of
  Life；　Anarchy　and　competition　the　Laws　of　Death。〃
  And　with　respect　to　the　mode　in　which　these　general
  principles　affect　the　secure　possession　of　property；　so　far　am　I
  from　invalidating　such　security；　that　the　whole　gist　of　these
  papers　will　be　found　ultimately　to　aim　at　an　extension　in　its
  range；　and　whereas　it　has　long　been　known　and　declared　that　the
  poor　have　no　right　to　the　property　of　the　rich；　I　wish　it　also　to
  be　known　and　declared　that　the　rich　have　no　right　to　the　property
  of　the　poor。
  But　that　the　working　of　the　system　which　I　have　undertaken　to
  develope　would　in　many　ways　shorten　the　apparent　and　direct；
  though　not　the　unseen　and　collateral；　power；　both　of　wealth；　as
  the　Lady　of　Pleasure；　and　of　capital　as　the　Lord　of　Toil；　I　do
  not　deny　on　the　contrary；　I　affirm　it　in　all　joyfulness；　knowing
  that　the　attraction　of　riches　is　already　too　strong；　as　their
  authority　is　already　too　weighty；　for　the　reason　of　mankind。　I
  said　in　my　last　paper　that　nothing　in　history　had　ever　been　so
  disgraceful　to　human　intellect　as　the　acceptance　among　us　of　the
  common　doctrines　of　political　economy　as　a　science。　I　have　many
  grounds　for　saying　this；　but　one　of　the　chief　may　be　given　in　few
  words。　I　know　no　previous　instance　in　history　of　a　nation's
  establishing　a　systematic　disobedience　to　the　first　principles　of
  its　professed　religion。　The　writings　which　we　（verbally）　esteem
  as　divine；　not　only　denounce　the　love　of　money　as　the　source　of
  all　evil；　and　as　an　idolatry　abhorred　of　the　Deity；　but　declare
  mammon　service　to　be　the　accurate　and　irreconcileable　opposite　of
  God's　service：　and；　whenever　they　speak　of　riches　absolute；　and
  poverty　absolute；　declare　woe　to　the　rich；　and　blessing　to　the
  poor。　Where　upon　we　forthwith　investigate　a　science　of　becoming
  rich　as　the　shortest　road　to　national　prosperity。
  〃Tai　Cristian　dannera　l'　Etiope；
  Quando　si　partiranno　i　due　collegi；
  L'UNO　IN　ETERNO　RICCO；　E　L'ALTRO　INOPE。〃
  Ad　Valorem
  We　saw　that　just　payment　of　labour　consisted　in　a　sum　of
  money　which　would　approximately　obtain　equivalent　labour　at　a
  future　time：　we　have　now　to　examine　the　means　of　obtaining　such
  equivalence。　Which　question　involves　the　definition　of　Value；
  Wealth；　Price；　and　Produce。
  None　of　these　terms　are　yet　defined　so　as　to　be　understood　by
  the　public。　But　the　last；　Produce；　which　one　might　have　thought
  the　clearest　of　all；　is；　in　use；　the　most　ambiguous；　and　the
  examination　of　the　kind　of　ambiguity　attendant　on　its　present
  employment　will　best　open　the　way　to　our　work。
  In　his　chapter　on　Capital；（14*）　Mr　J。S。　Mill　instances；　as　a
  capitalist；　a　hardware　manufacturer；　who；　having　intended　to
  spend　a　certain　portion　of　the　proceeds　of　his　business　in　buying
  plate　and　jewels；　changes　his　mind；　and；　'pays　it　as　wages　to
  additional　workpeople。〃　The　effect　is　stated　by　Mr　Mill　to　be；
  that　〃more　food　is　appropriated　to　the　consumption　of　productive
  labourers。〃
  Now　I　do　not　ask；　though；　had　I　written　this　paragraph；　it
  would　surely　have　been　asked　of　me；　What　is　to　become　of　the
  silversmiths？　If　they　are　truly　unproductive　persons；　we　will
  acquiesce　in　their　extinction。　And　though　in　another　part　of　the
  same　passage；　the　hardware　merchant　is　supposed　also　to　dispense
  with　a　number　of　servants；　whose　〃food　is　thus　set　free　for
  productive　purposes；〃　I　do　not　inquire　what　will　be　the　effect；
  painful　or　otherwise；　upon　the　servants；　of　this　emancipation　of
  their　food。　But　I　very　seriously　inquire　why　ironware　is　produce；
  and　silverware　is　not？　That　the　merchant　consumes　the　one；　and
  sells　the　other；　certainly　does　not　constitute　the　difference；
  unless　it　can　be　shown　（which；　indeed；　I　perceive　it　to　be
  becoming　daily　more　and　more　the　aim　of　tradesmen　to　show）　that
  commodities　are　made　to　be　sold；　and　not　to　be　consumed。　The
  merchant　is　an　agent　of　conveyance　to　the　consumer　in　one　case；
  and　is　himself　the　consumer　in　the　other：（15*）　but　the　labourers
  are　in　either　case　equally　productive；　since　they　have　produced
  goods　to　the　same　value；　if　the　hardware　and　the　plate　are　both
  goods。
  And　what　distinction　separates　them？　It　is　indeed　possible
  that　in　the　〃comparative　estimate　of　the　moralist；〃　with　which　Mr
  Mill　says　political　economy　has　nothing　to　do　（III。　i。　2）；　a
  steel　fork　might　appear　a　more　substantial　production　than　a
  silver　one：　we　may　grant　also　that　knives；　no　less　than　forks；
  are　good　produce；　and　scythes　and　ploughshares　serviceable
  articles。　But；　how　of　bayonets？　Supposing　the　hardware　merchant
  to　effect　large　sales　of　these；　by　help　of　the　〃setting　free〃　of
  the　food　of　his　servants　and　his　silversmith；　　is　he　still
  employing　productive　labourers；　or；　in　Mr　Mill's　words；　labourers
  who　increase　〃the　stock　of　permanent　means　of　enjoyment〃　（I。　iii。