prisoners　in　fetters；　the　forfeited　hostages　of　subject…chiefs　or
  sub…septs　who　have　broken　their　engagements。　The　Companions　are
  there　also；　and　they　are　stated　to　consist　of　his　privileged
  tenantry　and　of　his　body　guard；　which　is　composed　of　men　whom　he
  has　delivered　from　death；　jail；　or　servitude；　never　（a
  significant　exception）　of　men　whom　he　has　saved　on　the
  battle…field。　I　am　afraid　that　the　picture　of　Irish　society
  supplied　by　the　Crith　Gablach　must　throughout　be　regarded　as　to　a
  great　extent　ideal　or　theoretical；　at　any　rate；　there　is　much
  testimony　from　English　visitors　to　Ireland　that　many　considerable
  Irish　Chiefs　were　much　more　humbly　furnished　out　than　the　King　of
  Erin　at　Tara。　Yet　it　is　very　likely　that　they　all　had　Companions
  attending　them；　and　I　suspect　that　the　obligation　of。　maintaining
  a　little　court　had　much　to　do　with　that　strange　privilege　which
  in　later　times　had　a　deplorable　history；　the　right　of　the　Chief
  to　go　with　a　following　to　the　dwellings　of　his　tenants　and　there
  be　feasted　at　the　tenant's　expense。　That　even　petty　Chiefs　of　the
  Scottish　Highlands　had　a　retinue　of　the　same　character　is　known
  to　all　who　can　recall　that　immortal　picture　of　Celtic　society
  which　for　the　first　time　brought　it　home　to　men　who　were　nearly
  our　contemporaries　that　ancient　Celtic　life　and　manners　had
  existed　almost　down　to　their　days　　the　novel　of　'Waverley。'
  It　seems　extremely　probable　that；　in　a　particular　stage　of
  society；　this　personal　service　to　the　Chief　or　King　was
  everywhere　rendered　in　expectation　of　reward　in　the　shape　of　a
  gift　of　land。　The　Companions　of　the　Teutonic　kings；　in
  Continental　Europe；　shared　largely　in　the　Benefices…grants　of
  Roman　provincial　land　fully　peopled　and　stocked。　In　ancient
  England　the　same　class　are　believed　to　have　been　the　largest
  grantees　of　public　land　next　to　the　Church；　and　doubtless　we　have
  here　part　of　the　secret　of　the　mysterious　change　by　which　a　new
  nobility　of　Thanes；　deriving　dignity　and　authority　from　the　King；
  absorbed　the　older　nobility　of　Eorls。　But　we　are　a　little　apt　to
  forget　the　plentifulness　of　land　in　countries　lying　beyond　the
  northern　and　western　limits　of　the　Roman　Empire；　or　just　within
  them。　Mr　Thorold　Rogers；　writing　of　a　period　relatively　much
  later；　and　founding　his　opinion　on　the　extant　evidence　of　returns
  from　manor…lands；　speaks　of　land　as　the　'cheapest　commodity　of
  the　Middle　Ages。'　The　practical　difficulty　was　not　to　obtain
  land；　but　the　instruments　for　making　it　productive；　and　hence；　in
  a　society　older　relatively　than　any　Teutonic　society　of　which　we
  have　any　distinct　knowledge；　that　very　society　which　the　Brehon
  tracts　enable　us　to　understand；　it　may　very　well　have　been　that
  the　object　of　suit　at　court　was　much　less　to　obtain　land　than　to
  obtain　cattle。　The　Chief；　as　I　have　already　said；　was　before　all
  things　rich　in　flocks　and　herds。　He　was　military　leader；　and　a
  great　part　of　his　wealth　must　have　been　spoil　of　war；　but　in　his
  civil　capacity　he　multiplied　his　kine　through　his　growing　power
  of　appropriating　the　waste　for　pasture；　and　through　a　system　of
  dispersing　his　herds　among　the　tribesmen；　which　will　be　described
  in　the　next　Lecture。　The　Companion　who　followed　him　to　the　foray；
  or　was　ready　to　do　so；　cannot　but　have　been　enriched　by　his
  bounty；　and　thus；　if　already　noble；　he　became　greater；　if　he　was
  not　noble；　the　way　to　nobility　lay　through　wealth。　The　passage
  which　I　am　about　to　read　to　you　may　serve　to　illustrate　what
  probably　took　place；　though　there　is　nothing　except　common
  humanity　to　connect　the　tribes　of　whose　customs　it　speaks　with
  the　primitive　Teutons　and　Celts。　The　Rev　H。　Dugmore；　in　a　most
  interesting　volume；　called　a　'Compendium　of　Kafir　Laws　and
  Customs；'　and　published　at　the　Wesleyan　Missionary　Press；　Mount
  Coke；　British　Kaffraria；　writes　thus　of　much　the　most　advanced　of
  the　South　African　native　races；　the　Kafirs　or　Zulus　（p。　27）：　'As
  cattle　constitute　the　sole　wealth　of　the　people；　so　they　are
  their　only　medium　of　such　transactions　as　involve　exchange；
  payment；　or　reward。　The　retainers　of　a　chief　serve　him　for
  cattle；　nor　is　it　expected　that　he　could　maintain　his　influence；
  or　indeed　secure　any　number　of　followers；　if　unable　to　provide
  them　with　what　at　once　constitutes　their　money；　food；　and
  clothing。　He　requires；　then；　a　constant　fund　from　which　to
  satisfy　his　dependants；　and　the　amount　of　the　fund　required　may
  be　judged　of　from　the　character　of　the　demand　made　upon　him。　His
  retinue；　court；　or　whatever　it　is　to　be　called；　consists　of　men
  from　all　parts　of　the　tribe；　the　young；　the　clever；　and　the
  brave；　who　come　to　do　court　service　for　a　time；　that　they　may
  obtain　cattle　to　furnish　them　with　the　means　of　procuring　wives；
  arms；　or　other　objects　of　desire。　On　obtaining　these　they　return
  to　their　homes　and　give　place　to　others。　Thus　the　immediate
  retinue　of　a　chief　is　continually　changing；　and　constitutes　a
  permanent　drain　on　his　resources。'　Mr　Dugmore　goes　on　to　state
  that　the　sources　of　the　chief's　wealth　are　the　inherited　cattle
  of　his　father；　offerings　made　to　him　on　the　ceremony　of　his
  circumcision；　benevolences　levied　from　his　tribe；　fines　and
  confiscations；　and　the　results　of　predatory　excursions。
  The　remarkable　part　played　by　kine　in　ancient　Irish　society
  will；　I　hope；　be　made　more　intelligible　in　the　next　Lecture。
  Meantime；　let　me　observe　that　the　two　Celtic　societies　included
  in　these　islands　which　longest　retained　their　ancient　usages　were
  both　notoriously　given　to　the　plunder　of　cattle。　Lord　Macaulay；
  in　speaking　of　Irish　cattle…stealing；　sometimes；　I　must　own；
  seems　to　me　to　express　himself　as　if　he　thought　the　practice
  attributable　to　some　native　vice　of　Irish　character；　but　no　doubt
  it　was　what　Mr　Tylor　has　taught　us　to　call　a　survival；　an　ancient
  and　inveterate　habit；　which　in　this　case　continued　through　the
  misfortune　which　denied　to　Ireland　the　great　condition　of　modern
  legal　ideas；　a　strong　central　government。　The　very　same　practice；
  among　the　Celts　of　the　Scottish　Highlands　and　the　rude　Germanic
  population　of　the　Lowland　Border；　has　almost　been　invested　by　one
  man's　genius　with　the　dignity　of　a　virtue。　Again；　turning　to
  'Waverley；'　I　suppose　there　is　no　truer　representative　of　the
  primitive　Celtic　chief　than　Donald　Bean　Lean；　who　drives　the
  cattle　of　Tully　Veolan；　and　employs　a　soothsayer　to　predict　the
  number　of　beeves　which　are　likely　to　come　in　his　Way。　He　is　a　far
  more　genuine　'survival'　than　Fergus　McIvor；　who　all　but　deserts
  his　cause　for　a　disappointment　about　an　earldom。
  It　has　been　pointed　out　that　the　status　of　the　King's
  Companions　was　at　first　in　some　way　servile。　Whenever　legal
  expression　has　to　be　given　to　the　relations　of　the　Comitatus　to
  the　Teutonic　kings；　the　portions　of　the　Roman　law　selected　are
  uniformly　those　which　declare　the　semi…servile　relation　of　the
  Client　or　Freedman　to　his　Patron。　The　Brehon　law　permits　us　to
  take　the　same　view　of　the　corresponding　class　in　Celtic
  societies。　Several　texts　indicate　that　a　Chief　of　high　degree　is
  always　expected　to　surround　himself　with　unfree　dependants；　and
  you　will　recollect　that　the　retinue　of　the　King　of　Erin　was　to
  consist　not　only　of　free　tribesmen　but　of　a　bodyguard　of　men
  bound　to　him　by　servile　obligations。　So　far　as　it　goes；　I　quite
  agree　with　the　explanation　which　Mr　Freeman　has　given　of　the
  original　connection　between　servile　status　and　that　nobility　with
  which　the　primitive　nobility　of　birth　has　become　mixed　up　and
  confounded。　'The　lowly　clientage；'　he　says；　'of　the　Roman
  Patrician　and　the　noble　following　of　the　Hellenic　and　Teutonic
  leader　may　really　come　from　the　same　source；　and　may　both　alike
  be　parts　of　the　same　primeval　heritage。'　（'　Comparative
  Po