position　and　authority。
  But　while　the　Brehon　laws　suggest　that　the　possession　of
  personal　wealth　is　a　condition　of　the　maintenance　of
  chieftainship；　they　show　with　much　distinctness　that　through　the
  acquisition　of　such　wealth　the　road　was　always　open　to
  chieftainship。　We　are　not　altogether　without　knowledge　that　in
  some　European　societies　the　humble　freeman　might　be　raised　by
  wealth　to　the　position　which　afterwards　became　modern　nobility。
  One　fact；　among　the　very　few　which　are　tolerably　well　ascertained
  respecting　the　specific　origin　of　particular　modern　aristocracies
  is；　that　a　portion　of　the　Danish　nobility　were　originally
  peasants；　and　there　are　in　the　early　English　laws　some　traces　of
  a　process　by　which　a　Ceorl　might　become　a　Thane。　These　might　be
  facts　standing　by　themselves；　and　undoubtedly　there　is　strong
  reason　to　suspect　that　the　commencements　of　aristocracy　were
  multifold：　but　the　Brehon　tracts　point　out　in　several　places；
  with　legal　minuteness；　the　mode　in　which　a　peasant　freeman　in
  ancient　Ireland　could　become　a　chief。　There　are　few　personages　of
  greater　interest　spoken　of　in　these　laws　than　the　Bo…Aire；
  literally　the　'cow…nobleman。'　He　is；　to　begin　with；　simply　a
  peasant　who　has　grown　rich　in　cattle；　probably　through　obtaining
  the　use　of　large　portions　of　tribe…land。　The　true　nobles；　or
  Aires　　a　word　striking　from　its　consonance　with　words　of
  similar　meaning　in　the　Teutonic　languages　　are　divided；　though
  we　can　scarcely　believe　the　classification　to　correspond　with　an
  universal　fact；　into　seven　grades。　Each　grade　is　distinguished
  from　the　others　by　the　amount　of　wealth　possessed　by　the　Chief
  belonging　to　it；　by　the　weight　attached　to　his　evidence；　by　his
  power　of　binding　his　tribe　by　contracts　（literally　of
  'knotting'）；　by　the　dues　which　he　receives　in　kind　from　his
  vassals　according　to　a　system　to　be　presently　described；　and　by
  his　Honor…Price；　or　special　damages　incurred　by　injuring　him。　At
  the　bottom　of　the　scale　is　the　chief　or　noble　called　the
  Aire…desa；　and　the　Brehon　law　provides　that　when　the　Bo…Aire　has
  acquired　twice　the　wealth　of　an　Aire…desa；　and　has　held　it　for　a
  certain　number　of　generations；　he　becomes　an　Aire…desa　himself。
  The　advantage　secured　to　wealth　does　not；　you　see；　exclude
  respect　for　birth；　but　works　into　it。　'He　is　an　inferior　chief；'
  says　the　'Senchus　Mor；'　'whose　father　was　not　a　chief；'　and　there
  are　many　other　strong　assertions　of　the　reverence　due　to
  inherited　rank。　The　primary　view　of　chieftainship　is　evidently
  that　it　springs　from　purity　or　dignity　of　blood；　but　noble　birth
  is　regarded　as　naturally　associated　with　wealth；　and　he　who
  becomes　rich　gradually　climbs　to　a　position　indistinguishable
  from　that　which　he　would　have　occupied　if　he　had　been　nobly　born。
  What　is　thus　new　in　the　system　is　the　clear　account　of　nobility
  as　a　status；　having　its　origin　in　the　organic　structure　of
  ancient　society；　but　nevertheless　in　practice　having　perpetually
  fresh　beginnings。
  The　enormous　importance　which　belongs　to　wealth　and　specially
  to　wealth　in　cattle；　in　the　early　Aryan　society　reflected　by　the
  Brehon　tracts；　helps；　I　think；　to　clear　up　one　great　difficulty
  which　meets　us　on　the　threshold　of　an　enquiry　into　the　origin　of
  aristocracies。　I　suppose　that　the　popular　theory　on　the　subject
  of　the　privileged　class　in　modern　communities　is　that　it　was
  originally　indebted　for　its　status；　if　not　for　its　power　or
  influence；　to　kingly　favour。　An　Englishman　once　questioned　the
  Emperor　Paul　of　Russia　on　the　position　of　the　Russian　nobility。
  'The　only　man　who　is　noble　in　my　dominions；'　said　the　Czar；　'is
  the　man　to　whom　I　speak；　for　the　time　that　I　am　speaking　to　him。'
  I　merely　take　these　words　as　the　strongest　possible　statement　of
  the　view　to　which　I　am　referring；　but　they　were　used　by　a　monarch
  with　a　disturbed　brain；　whose　authority　had　contracted　something
  of　an　Oriental　character　from　its　long　subordination　to　Tartar
  power；　and　they　were　never　absolutely　true　even　of　Russia。　Among
  ourselves；　however；　the　favourite　assumption　seems　certainly　to
  be；　however　slight　may　be　the　practical　consequences　we　draw　from
  it；　that　all　aristocratic　privilege　had　its　origin　in　kingly
  grace；　and　this　appears；　on　the　whole；　to　be　the　theory　of
  English　law。　But　the　institutions　of　many　parts　of　the　Continent
  long　retained　the　traces　of　a　different　set　of　ideas；　and　these
  were　found　where　kingly　power　was　actually　much　greater　than　in
  England。　The　French　Noblesse；　before　the　Revolution；　would　as　a
  body　have　resented　the　assertion　that　they　were　a　creation　of　the
  King；　and　the　Kings　of　France　more　than　once　admitted　that　they
  were　only　the　most　exalted　members　of　a　class　to　which　their　own
  nobility　belonged。
  Kings　have　everywhere　nowadays；　and　in　many　countries　have
  had　for　centuries；　a　monopoly　of　the　power　of　ennobling。　This
  road　to　nobility　has　been　so　long　trodden；　that　men　in　general
  have　almost　forgotten　there　ever　was　another　route。　Yet
  historical　scholars　have　long　known　that　nobility　conferred　by
  royal　grant　was；　in　one　sense；　a　modern　institution；　though　they
  have　not　succeeded　in　completely　explaining　how　it　came　to
  supplant　or　dwarf　the　institution　upon　which　it　was　engrafted。
  There　seems　to　be　no　doubt　that　the　first　aristocracy　springing
  from　kingly　favour　consisted　of　the　Comitatus；　or　Companions　of
  the　King。　Although　there　is　a　good　deal　of　evidence　that　the
  class　was　at　first　considered　in　some　way　servile；　it　gradually
  became　in　some　countries　the　type　of　all　nobility。　A　few
  tolerably　familiar　facts　may　serve　to　remind　us　how　remarkable
  has　been　the　fortune　of　the　royal　households　all　over　Western
  Europe。　The　Mayor　of　the　Frankish　Palace　became　King　of　the
  Franks。　The　Chamberlain　of　the　Romano…German　Emperors　is　now　the
  German　Emperor。　The　blood　of　the　Steward　of　Scotland　runs　in　the
  veins　of　the　Kings　of　England。　The　Constables　of　France
  repeatedly　shook　or　saved　the　French　throne。　Among　ourselves　the
  great　officers　of　the　Royal　Council　and　Household　still　take
  precedence　either　of　all　Peers　or　of　all　Peers　of　their　own
  degree。　Whence；　then；　came　this　great　exaltation　of　the　Mayor　or
  Count　of　the　Palace；　of　the　great　Seneschal　or　Steward；　of　the
  high　Chancellor；　the　Great　Chamberlain；　and　High　Constable
  titles　which；　when　they　do　not　mark　an　office　originally
  clerical；　point　to　an　occupation　which　must　at　first　have　been
  menial？
  It　seems　certain　that　the　household　sprang　from　very　humble
  beginnings。　Tacitus　describes　the　companions　of　the　Germanic
  chief　as　living　with　him　in　his　house　and　supported　by　his
  bounty。　Mr　Stubbs　when　stating　（'Constitutional　History；'　p。　150）
  that　'the　gesiths　of　an　（English）　king　were　his　guard　and　private
  council；'　observes　that　the　'free　household　servants　of　a　ceorl
  are　also　in　a　certain　sense　his　gesiths。'　The　Companions　of　the
  King　appear　also　in　the　Irish　legal　literature；　but　they　are　not
  noble；　and　they　are　associated　with　the　king's　body…guard；　which
  is　essentially　servile。　The　King　of　Erin；　though　he　never　existed
  （strictly　speaking）；　save　for　short　intervals；　yet　always；　so　to
  speak　tended　to　exist；　and　the　Crith　Gablach；　a　Brehon　tract　of
  which　a　translation　is　given　at　the　end　of　Sullivan's　edition　of
  O'Curry's　Lectures；　contains　a　picture　of　his　palace　and　state。
  The　edifice　intended　to　be　described　is　apparently　very　much　the
  same　as　the　great　Icelandic　house　of　which　Mr　Dasent；　in　the
  'Story　of　Burnt　Njal；'　has　attempted　to　give　a　drawing　from　the
  descriptions　found　in　Norse　literature。　In　it　the　King　feasts　his
  guests；　from　kings　and　king's　sons　to　a　ghastly　company　of
  prisoners　in　fetters；　the　forfeited　hostages　of　subject…chiefs　or
  sub…septs　who