manifestation　of　the　self…esteem　of　the　lower　classes　a　simply
  outrageous　revolt　against　the　doctrine　of　the　natural
  aristocratic　organization　of　society。　Much　less　should　we　fall
  into　the　mistake　of　all　aged　reformers　who；　because　they　have
  achieved　something；　believe　that　the　world's　history　should　close
  with　them　and　what　they　have　accomplished。　We　know　to…day　that
  history　never　stands　still；　that　all　progress　of　history　is
  gained　only　in　the　struggle　of　peoples　and　of　social　classes；　and
  that　they　cannot　always　be　as　peaceful　as　in　a　nursery。　And　those
  who　are　always　ready　to　dream　of　a　jolly　war　and　its　favorable
  moral　consequences　should　not　forget　that　the　social　struggles
  within　society　differ　from　wars　between　nations　only　in　degree；
  not　in　kind。　Social　struggles　can　likewise　favorably　affect
  peoples。　I　only　call　attention　to　the　struggles　between　the
  plebeians　and　the　patricians。　There　can　be　no　progress　in
  institutions　without　certain　social　struggles。　All　struggles
  within　society　are　struggles　for　institutions；　and　that　for　the
  progress　of　cultivation　the　individual　will　grow　enthusiastic；
  will　even　sacrifice　his　life　for　that　for　which　classes　and
  parties　fight；　is　so　inevitable；　so　salutary　that　now　and　then　we
  do　not　find　fault　with　breaking　the　formal　law　in　such　contests。
  There　is　no　worse　delusion　than　that　of　the　older　English
  economists　that　there　are　a　number　of　simple　and　natural　legal
  and　economic　institutions　which　have　always　been　as　they　are　and
  will　always　remain　so；　that　all　progress　of　civilization　and
  wealth　is　simply　an　individual　or　technical　one；　that　this　is
  simply　a　question　of　increased　production　or　consumption　which
  will　and　can　be　accomplished　on　the　basis　of　the　same　legal
  institutions。　This　faith　in　the　stability　of　economic
  institutions　was　the　result　of　the　naive　overweening　confidence
  of　the　older　economists　in　the　omnipotence　of　the　individual　and
  of　the　individual　life。　Socialism　then　has　perhaps　over…estimated
  the　significance　of　social　institutions。　Historical　economics　and
  the　modern　philosophy　of　law　have　given　them　their　due　position
  by　showing　us　that　the　great　epochs　of　economic　progress　are
  primarily　connected　with　the　reform　of　social　institutions。　The
  great　messages　of　salvation　to　humanity　were　all　aimed　at　the
  injustice　of　outworn　institutions；　by　higher　justice　and　better
  institutions　humanity　is　educated　up　to　higher　forms　of　life。
  As　little　as　the　social　institutions　of　antiquity　have
  governed　modern　history；　as　certainly　as　slavery　and　serfdom　have
  vanished；　as　certainly　as　all　past　progress　of　institutions　was
  connected　with　apparent　success　in　distributing　wealth　and
  incomes　in　a　more　just　way　and　in　adapting　it　more　and　more　to
  personal　virtues　and　accomplishments；　as　certainly　as　this
  increased　more　and　more　the　activity　of　all　individuals；　as
  certain　as　all。this　is　it；　that　the　future　will　also　see　new
  improvements　in　this　direction；　that　the　institutions　of　coming
  centuries　will　be　more　just　than　those　of　to…day。　The　decisive
  ideal　conceptions　will　be　influenced　not　exclusively　but
  essentially　by　distributive　justice。　Institutions　which　govern
  whole　groups　of　human　beings　and　the　entire　distribution　of
  wealth　and　incomes　necessarily　call　forth　a　judgment　upon　their
  total　effects。　Inasmuch；　indeed；　as　single　institutions　concern
  only　single　men　and　single　phases　of　life；　the　justice　required
  will　only　be　a　partial　one。　Naturally　this　is　always　easy　to
  attain。　A　just　assessment　of　taxes；　a　just　distribution　of　the
  burdens　for　the　improvement　of　highways；　of　the　duty　of　military
  service；　a　just　gradation　of　wages　are　much　easier　to　attain　than
  a　just　distribution　of　the　total　incomes　and　wealth。　But　an
  endeavor　towards　these　ends　will　never　cease；　all　partially　just
  regulations　have　significance　only　in　a　system　of　the　just
  distribution　of　the　total。　And　with　this　we　finally　come　to　the
  question　what　can　be　and　what　should　the　State　do　in　this　matter？
  In　our　view　it　will　obviously　not　be　a　body　confined　to　the
  extension　of　justice　in　criminal　law；　in　the　jurisdiction　upon
  contracts　and　further；　perhaps；　in　the　assessment　of　taxes；　but
  ignoring　the　just　distribution　of　goods。　What　sense　is　there　in
  warming　up　in　the　legislatures　over　the　hundredth　part　of　a　cent；
  which　a　quart　of　beer　or　a　yard　of　cloth　is　raised　in　price　for
  the　poor　man；　when　one　takes　the　standpoint　on　principle；　that
  his　wages　are　to　be　regarded　as　something　indifferent　and　remote
  from　all　human　intervention。　Our　modern　civilized　commonwealth
  indeed　cannot　remove　every　injustice；　because　primarily　it
  operates　and　has　to　operate　by　means　of　law。　But　it　should　not
  therefore　be　indifferent　to　the　moral　sentiments　of　men　who　ask
  for　justice　in　distributing　wealth　and　incomes　for　the　grand
  total　of　human　society。　The　State　is　the　centre　and　the　heart　in
  which　all　institutions　empty　and　unite。　It　also　has　a　strong
  direct　influence　on　the　distribution　of　incomes　and　wealth　as　the
  greatest　employer　of　labor；　the　greatest　property　holder；　or　the
  administrator　of　the　greatest　undertakings。　Above　all　it
  exercises　as　legislator　and　administrator　the　greatest　indirect
  influence　on　law　and　custom；　on　all　social　institutions；　and　this
  is　the　decisive　point。
  The　right　man　in　the　right　place；　the　great　statesman　and
  reformer；　the　far…seeing　party　chief　and　legislator　can　here
  accomplish　extraordinary　things；　not　directly；　not　immediately；
  but　through　a　wise　and　just　transformation　of　the　economic
  institutions　they　can　greatly　influence　the　administration　of
  incomes　and　property。　Of　course；　the　theory　which　sees　only
  natural　processes　in　all　economic　life　admits　this　as　little　as
  those　who　from　the　standpoint　of　certain　class　interests；　from
  conviction　of　principle；　or　even　from　mere　shortsightedness
  constantly　recur　to　the　impotency　of　the　State。　Statesmen　of　a
  lower　order　also　talk　with　eunuchs'　voices　of　the　inability　of
  the　State　to　interfere　anywhere；　they　mistake　their　own　impotency
  for　that　of　the　State。　All　these　adverse　opinions　forget　that　the
  State　is　and　must　be　the　leading　intelligence；　the　responsible
  centre　of　public　sentiment；　the　acme　of　existing　moral　and
  intellectual　powers；　and　therefore　can　attain　great　results　in
  this　direction。
  We　do　not　demand　that　any　leading　personalities；　like　a　human
  omnipotence；　should　control；　compare；　examine　and　estimate　the
  qualities　and　achievements　of　millions；　and　accordingly
  distribute　incomes　justly。　This　is　a　conception　of　folly　which
  reasonable　socialists　now　abandon。　The　State　can　at　all　times
  chiefly　influence　a　juster　distribution　of　income　by　means　of
  improved　social　institutions。　Only　in　this　way　is　it　guaranteed
  against　having　its　best　intentions　destroyed　by　a　thousandfold
  formal　injustice。　The　total　of　economic　institutions　will　always
  be　more　important　than　the　insight　and　intention　of　those　who　for
  the　time　being　govern　in　the　central　administration；　be　they　the
  greatest　of　men。　Their　wisdom　and　justice　can　promote　and　reform
  the　institutions；　but　cannot　take　their　place。　They　will　prove
  themselves　true　benefactors　of　humanity　only　by　fixing　the　net
  result　of　their　labors　in　lasting　institutions；　in　increasing　for
  posterity　the　great　capital　of　traditional　justice　by　reforms；
  and　this　will　secure　immortality　to　their　genius　and　their　will。
  We　are　at　the　end　of　our　inquiry。　What　is　the　result？　It　is
  the　fact　that　the　conception　of　justice　grows　out　of　necessary
  processes　in　our　soul　and　necessarily　influences　economic　life。
  The　idea　of　justice　is；　like　other　moral　ideas；　not　imparted　to
  men　by　some　revelation；　and　just　as　little　is　it　an　arbitrary
  invention；　it　is　the　necessary　product　of　our　moral　intuition　and
  our　logical　thinking；　and　in　so　far　it　is　an　eternal　truth；
  manifesting　itself　ever　new　yet　ever　similar　metamorphoses。　In
  many　it　works　only　as　a　vague　feeling。　In　the　course　of　history
  it　develops；　for　the　majority；　into　clear　conceptions；　standards
  and　conclusions。　According　to　the　laws　of　his　thought　man　must
  unify　the　manifold　and　then　subject　it　to　uniform　standards。　The
  supposition　of　moral　communities　in　society　creates　the
  conception　of　an　earthly　justice；　the　supposition　of　the　unity　of
  all　things；　that　of　divine　justice。　It　is　the　same　chain　of
  judgments　and　conclusions　which；　dissatisfied　with　the
  imperfections　of　earthly　things；　transfers　the　last　compensation
  into　a　higher　and　better　world。　The　idea　of　justice　is　thus
  connected　with　the　highest　and　best　that　we　think；　imagine　and
  believe。
  But　as　this　highest　and　last　never　reveals　itself　to　mankind
  in　its　full　splendor；　as　we　eternally　seek　it；　eternally　battle
  for　it；　and　though　ever　progressing；　never　reach　it；　so　the　idea
  of　justice　has　no　resting；　determined　existence　on　earth。　As　no
  penal　law；　no　judge　is　absolutely　just；　so　no　established
  distribution　of　property　and　incomes　is　altogether　just。　But
  every　consecutive　epoch　of　mankind　has　won　a　higher　measure　of
  justice　in　this　field。　In　custom；　law　and　existing　institutions
  which　rule　economic　life　we　have　the　outcome　of　all　the　struggles
  for　justice　which　hi