such　unfavorable　psychological　effects；　leading　to　laziness　and
  indifference。　As　long　as　the　organs　of　the　administration　do　not
  reach　a　far　higher　perfection；　as　long　as　the　formal
  possibilities　of　execution　are　not　quite　different；　most
  socialistic　experiments　would　only　extend　the　consequences　of　our
  poor　laws　to　large　areas　of　our　social　and　economic　organization。
  But　we　must　never　forget　the　distinction　between　means　and
  ends。　The　form　of　the　law　is　the　means；　justice；　however；　the
  end。　We　may　perceive　that　laws　cannot　do　away　with　every
  immorality；　cannot　effect　a　strictly　just　distribution　of
  incomes；　that　the　ingenious　tricks　of　astute　and　selfish　business
  men　flout　all　decency；　and　find　ways　to　slip　through　the　meshes
  of　the　best　laws。　But　this　must　not　restrain　us　from　working　for
  justice；　and　from　faith　in　its　victory。　Although　thousands　of
  injustices　are　bound　to　occur　in　our　life；　our　best　possession
  rests　on　the　idea　of　justice。　All　social　progress　depends　on
  further　victories　of　justice。　By　demanding　a　just　distribution　of
  incomes；　socialism　has　introduced　nothing　new；　but　has　in
  contrast　to　the　errors　which　were　created　by　materialistic
  epigones　in　a　short　period　of　so…called　philosophy　of
  enlightenment；　only　returned　to　the　great　traditions　of　all
  idealistic　social　philosophy。　The　error　of　socialism　was　simply
  that　it　overlooked　the　difference　between　material　and　formal
  justice；　as　well　as　the　significance　of　other　equally　justified
  social　ideal　conceptions；　that　it　imagined　the　individual
  conceptions　of　certain　idealists　of　what　is　just；　would　suffice
  to　overthrow　suddenly　and　immediately　primeval　institutions。　With
  its　crude　excrescences　it　returned　to　standards　of　justice　which
  perhaps　correspond　to　the　first　stages　of　civilization；　certainly
  to　rough　views；　but　not　to　refined　conceptions　of　higher
  morality。
  Socialism　can　teach　us　not　to　demand　a　false　justice；　it
  should　never　hinder　us　from　fighting　for　a　true　justice。　History
  tells　us　that　progress　has　usually　been　tedious；　it　shows　us　just
  as　much　that　at　length　the　greatest　formal　difficulties　have　been
  overcome；　that　especially　in　the　great　epochs　of　faith　in　ideals
  which　rejuvenate　and　ennoble　men；　the　juster　right；　the　refined
  morals　have　triumphed　over　the　powers　of　egoism；　of　sluggishness；
  of　stupidity；　and　now　better　and　juster　institutions　have　grown
  up。　There　was　a　time　when　the　demand　for　a　just　system　of　trade；
  which　is　universally　conceded　to…day；　appeared　as　an　ideal　far　in
  advance　of　the　times。　Robberies；　thefts；　frauds；　brawls　in　the
  market…places；　extortions　of　gifts　were　the　older　forms　of
  transferring　property。　Here　a　thousand　years'　work　in
  civilization　has　developed；　in　connection　with　the　progress　of
  reined　conceptions　of　justice；　the　institutions　of　law；　which
  to…day　govern　and　bind　all　intercourse　as　a　matter　of　course。
  The　leading　conceptions　in　this　work　of　civilization　in　the
  past　and　present　do　naturally　not　relate　to　the　whole　society　and
  all　its　purposes；　nor　to　all　qualities　of　men。　In　every　ordinary
  barter　two　persons；　whose　other　qualities　are　not　conceded　in
  this　relation；　which　is　confined　to　this　one　barter；　meet　with
  the　purpose　of　advancing　their　mutual　interests　by　the　exchange
  of　certain　goods。　This　result　is　reached　if　they　exchange　values
  essentially　equal；　if　both　sides　make　equal　profits。　〃The　giving
  and　the　taking；〃　　Herbart　says；　〃everywhere　presupposes
  compensation；　i。e。；　equality　of　the　given　and　the　taken。〃
  Conceding　the　standards　of　equality　only；　can　there　be　any
  dissent。　The　savage　sees　equality　in　purely　external
  circumstances；　in　the　fact　that　the　furs　just　fill　the　kettle　for
  which　he　trades　them。　The　civilized　man　asks　for　equality　of
  money　value；　the　formalist　for　the　equal　absence　of　fraud；　force
  and　error。　The　principle　however；　always　remains　the　same。
  Equality　measured　in　some　way　is　required。　And　if　the　equality　of
  both　sides　required　by　the　conventional　standard　exists；　justice
  is　secured　because　the　logical　judgment　and　the　moral　test　does
  not　bring　the　single　agreement　into　relation　with　the　total
  distribution　of　incomes；　with　the　total　worthiness　of　the
  persons。　Only　a　fool　could　require　as　a　demand　of　justice；　that
  the　grocer　grade　the　price　of　a　pound　of　coffee　according　to　the
  wealth　of　each　customer；　or　that　in　a　publishing　contract　the
  publisher　should　pay　to　the　author　of　an　unsalable　scientific
  book　a　large　sum　because　it　is　a　work　of　great　labor　and　skill。
  The　justice　of　a　single　bargain　is　the　so…called　exchanging
  justice；　as　Trendelenburg　in　his　admirable　essays　on　Aristotle
  has　proved　to　be　the　real　meaning　of　the　great　Stagaryte。　This
  exchanging　justice　is　nevertheless　not　in　strict　contrast　to
  distributive　justice；　it　is　only　one　of　its　subdivisions；　which
  concerts　not　the　whole　society　and　all　its　purposes；　but　simply　a
  part　of　them　and　an　especial　purpose。
  As　long　as　the　value　of　every　good　thing　is　a　different　one
  for　each　man；　so　long　a　certain　inequality　of　profits　will　not
  seem　unjust。　Only　when　this　equality　oversteps　certain　bounds；
  when　its　cause　is　not　the　free　decision　of　a　free　man；　does　a
  lively　feeling　of　injustice　arise　and　seek　a　legal　remedy。　For
  thousands　of　years　the　selfish　impulses　of　those　who　in　the
  social　struggle　of　competition　are　the　stronger；　have　demanded
  unconditional　freedom　of　contract；　and　this　demand　is　always
  opposed　by　public　conscience　and　the　demand　of　the　weaker；　which
  establishes　the　conception　of　justum　pretium；　which　requires　a
  governmental　regulation　of　prices；　statutes　on　usury；
  consideration　for　the　〃laesio　enormis；〃　　public　control　of　abuses
  in　trade　and　traffic；　a　restriction　of　exploitation。　This
  requirement　disappears　only　when　two　real　equals　meet；　who　as　a
  rule　derive　equal　benefit　from　their　commercial　relations。
  The　older　economic　school　of　Adam　Smith；　as　we　suggested　in
  our　introduction；　had　found　its　ideal　of　justice　exclusively　in
  the　freedom　of　contracts。　Presuming　that　all　men　are　by　nature
  equal；　it　demanded　only　freedom　for　these　equal　men；　in　the　hope
  that　this　would　result　in　agreements　about　equal　values　with
  equal　profits　for　both　parties。　It　knew　neither　the　social
  classes　nor　the　social　institutions　in　their　significance　for
  economic　life；　for　it　the　social　mechanism　was　composed
  exclusively　of　the　activity　of　individuals　and　their　single
  agreements。　And　therefore　it　could　not　demand　any　other　kind　of
  justice。　This　was　not　wrong；　but　it　was　only　a　part　of　the　〃just〃
  which　it　demanded。
  We　demand　to…day　above　all；　besides　a　just　system　of　barter；
  just　economic　institutions；　i。e。；　we　demand　that　the　complexes　of
  rules　of　morals　and　right　which　govern　groups　of　men　who　live　and
  work　together　should　harmonize　in　their　results　with　those　ideal
  conceptions　of　justice　which　on　the　basis　of　our　moral　and
  religious　conceptions　are　prevalent　to…day；　or　which　are　gaining
  recognition。　We　do　not　acknowledge　any　one　of　these　institutions
  to　be　above　history；　as　having　always　existed　or　as　necessity
  everlasting。　We　test　the　result　of　every　one　of　them；　and　ask　of
  each：　How　did　it　originate；　what　conceptions　of　justice　have
  generated　it；　what　necessity　exists　for　it　to…day？
  To　be　sure　we　also　know　how　to　appreciate　the　value　of　the
  institutions　transmitted　to　us；　we　know　that　the　sacred
  traditions　of　the　past　fill　our　mind　with　awe；　that　even　the　form
  of　traditional　law　has　a　restraining　effect　on　rough　characters；
  that　a　lasting　condition　of　social　peace　is　based　on　the　greatest
  possible　restriction　of　formal　breach　of　law。　We　admit　that
  institutions　must　never　disappear　in　form　and　substance；　that
  nations　can　never　create　anything　wholly　new；　but　must　always
  build　on　what　exists。　In　this　lasting　continuity　of　the　whole　we
  have　a　guarantee　that　the　struggle　for　that　which　is　good　and
  just　will　not　expire　fruitlessly；　though　this　would　always
  happen；　if　each　generation　had　to　begin　this　struggle　anew；　and
  was　not　furnished　with　the　inheritance　of　tried　wisdom　and
  justice；　contained　in　traditional　institutions。　We　admit　that
  every　momentary　condition　of　peace　in　society；　as　it　is　preserved
  by　an　existing　law　of　property；　inheritance　and　some　other
  institutions；　is　more　valuable　than　a　dangerously　unsettling　war
  for　a　juster　law　of　property　and　inheritance；　when　the
  traditional　law　still　corresponds　to　the　equilibrium　of　the
  forces　existing　in　society　and　to　the　prevalent　ideal
  conceptions。　In　this　case　every　struggle　for　more　just　laws　is
  for　the　time　being　hopeless　and　vain。　It　can　only　harm　and
  destroy。　Even　the　most　violent　revolution　can　not　replace　the
  mental　transformation　of　men　which　is　the　precondition　of　a
  juster　law。　The　essential　point　is　always　that　the　forces
  themselves　and　the　conceptions　of　justice　have　changed。　Then　only
  can　a　struggle　succeed。
  Because　this　will　always　be；　we　do　not　fear；　like　the
  alarmists　and　the　pusillanimous　of　all　times；　every　struggle　for
  juster　laws。　And　on　this　account　we　do　not　see　in　every
  manifestation　of　the　self…esteem　of　the　lower　classes　a　simply
  outrageous　revolt　against　the　doctrine　of　the　natural
  aristocratic　o