justice　which　gives　each　one　his　share；　is　confronted　in　the
  field　of　social　policy　by　some　other　ideas。　These　are　in　the
  first　place　the　idea　of　community；　which　allots　to　the　whole　that
  which　belongs　to　it；　which　regards　the　promotion　of　the　whole
  more　than　the　rights　of　the　parts；　in　the　secund　place　the　idea
  of　benevolence；　which　in　its　consciousness　of　community　gives
  more　to　the　poor　man　than　he　can　justly　demand；　finally；　the　idea
  of　liberty；　which　permits　each　part　to　act　freely；　placing
  numerous　limits　upon　justice　and　the　community。　That　this　results
  in　many　restrictions　upon　the　exercise　of　justice　we　will　here
  only　suggest；　not　demonstrate。　But　the　fact　always　remains　that
  the　constantly　growing　and　developing　conceptions　of　justice
  extend　their　influence　daily　and　hourly　into　the　activity　of
  practical　life；　that　in　the　form　of　moral　and　religious　sense　of
  duty；　social　custom　and　actual　law；　they　regulate　and　modify　rude
  forces　and　selfish　impulses。　The　conflict　between　interest　and
  moral　ideas　will　of　course　never　cease；　but　only　be　moderated。
  All　human　life　only　exists　under　the　presumption　of　this　never
  ceasing　internal　combat。　There　are　always　claims　of　economic
  justice　which　appear　to　be　only　bold　ideal　dreams；　but　there　are
  always　many　which　have　conquered　in　life；　or　at　least　have
  obtained　for　themselves　the　majorities；　the　leading　powers。　And
  to　them　the　more　refined　economic　culture　owes　its　humane
  character。
  Practically　the　most　important　form　in　which　these　ideas
  conquer　is　that　of　custom　and　of　law。　Without　these　formal　means
  the　conceptions　and　judgments　of　justice　cannot　easily　be
  realized；　cannot　easily　be　transmitted　from　generation　to
  generation。　Custom　and　law　lend　permanence　and　stability　to　ideas
  of　morality；　and　effect　the　agreement　of　men　about　that　which
  ought　to　be。　From　the　moral　disposition　of　men　arise　rules　of
  custom；　which　as　distinct　rules　of　life　curb　the　wild　play　of
  passions　and　impulses。　Custom　is　that　which　we　regularly
  practice；　originating　in　experience　and　recollection；　in　the
  judicious　conception　of　common　purpose　and　in　moral　reflection。
  As　crude　as　custom　may。　originally　be；　its　rule　is　always　an
  improvement　in　comparison　with　the　purely　natural　play　of
  instincts。　It　appears　to　the　growing　generation　the　appropriate；
  necessary；　just　and　obvious　condition　of　all　intercourse；　all
  division　of　labor；　all　social　existence。　As　an　independent　power
  it　confronts　the　individuals　and　their　impulses　and　becomes　the
  foundation　of　all　morals；　all　religion；　as　well　as　all　rights　and
  all　institutions。
  Originally　inflexible　and　relentless　in　itself　custom　later
  becomes　more　variable　in　individual　morality；　adapts　itself　to
  conditions；　though　it　still　exacts　the　more　noble　and　sublime；　in
  the　positive　law；　which　is　gradually　separated　from　custom；　it
  becomes　a　rule；　demanding　less；　but　for　this　〃less〃　a　much
  stricter　obedience。　Custom　in　higher　stages　of　culture　only
  prevails　through　fear　of　reproach；　of　contempt；　of　social
  ostracism。　Formal　law　only　chooses　the　rules　of　social　life　most
  important　for　common　interest；　but　enforces　their　observation；
  when　necessary；　through　the　physical　compulsion　which　the　whole
  can　exercise　over　the　individual。
  Internally　of　the　same　nature　as　morals　and　custom；　i。e。；
  originating　equally　in　social　ideals　and　primarily　in　the　idea　of
  justice；　the　law　adopts　through　its　external；　formal　nature　the
  character　of　something　independent；　in　consequence　of　which
  independence　the　law　can　only　uphold　justice　within　its　own　range
  and　can　only　execute　it　in　a　certain　sense。
  To　the　essence　of　right　and　law；　as　it　has　been　evolved　from
  religion；　morals　and　customs　by　an　experience　of　many　thousand
  years；　belongs　above　all　the　uniform　and　sure　execution　of　the
  rules　which　have　once　been　confirmed　universally　and　uniformly。
  Without　uniform　application；　without　a　sure　administration；　law
  does　not　remain　law。　To　achieve　this　is　extraordinary　difficult；
  on　account　of　the　manifold　complexity　of　life。　The　goal　we　can
  only　reach　by　limiting　ourselves　to　that　which　is　of　the　most
  importance　and　by　long；　laborious；　logical　brain…work；　which
  reduces　the　rules　of　law　to　a　few　clear　and　universally
  intelligible　sentences。　The　exercise　of　the　judicial　power　is
  raised　by　this　quality　above　the　level　of　personal　feelings　and
  changing　disposition；　laws　are　guided　by　it　to　a　safe　and　uniform
  application。　The　more　severely　law　interferes；　subordinates
  details；　proceeds　radically　and　relentlessly；　the　more　important
  this　formal　criterion　grows。　The　uniform　and　just　application　of
  law　becomes　so　important　that　the　imperfect　law　whose　just
  application　is　secured　is　preferred　to　the　more　perfect　and
  materially　more　just　law　whose　application　varies；　becomes
  uncertain　and　thus　unjust　everywhere　or　in　the　hands　of　judges
  and　officials　of　to…day。　Nearly。　all　positive　law；　therefore；　and
  especially　written　law；　which　the　thinking　mind　generates　by　the
  machinery　of　legislation；　which　has　not　as　customary　law　been
  derived　from　use；　is　inflexible；　feeble；　confined　to　outward；
  clearly　visible　marks；　it　cannot　regard　individualities　and　their
  natures；　it　deals　with　rough　averages。　Instead　of　testing
  individuals；　for　example；　it　divides　adults　and　minors　according
  to　a　fixed　age；　approximately　correct　for　the　totality；　but　more
  or　less　arbitrary　in　regard　to　the　individual。　It　calls　all　adult
  men　to　the　polls；　not　because　they　are　really　of　equal　importance
  to　the　commonwealth；　but　because　the　application　of　every　more
  complicated　distinction　would　result　practically　in　greater
  injustices。　Thus　law　becomes　often　inequitable　and　materially
  unjust；　not　because　formal　justice　is　superior；　but　because　it　is
  more　easily　attained　in　the　existing　stage　of　civilization。　This
  gives　rise　to　thousands　of　conflicts　between　material　and　formal
  …　justice；　which　are　so　often　decisive　for　the　practical
  questions　of　distribution　of　wealth　and　incomes。
  If　there　is　any　demand　of　justice　which　it　is　desired　to
  introduce　into　our　institutions　through　the　channel　of　ordinary
  reform　by　positive　law；　it　is　not　only　necessary　that　the　demand
  be　recognized　and　desired　by　the　best　as　right；　that　it　must　have
  become　custom　in　certain　places；　that　it　must　have　overcome　the
  resisting　powers　of　egoism；　of　listless　indolence　which　clings　to
  tradition；　that　it　should　have　triumphed　over　the　eventual
  obstruction　of　the　other　ethical　ideas；　which　tending　toward
  other　goals；　often　may　be　an　obstacle；　that　it　should　have　become
  a　dogma　of　ruling　parties　and　statesmen。　No；　it　must　also　have
  evolved　the　qualities　of　a　practicable　formal　law；　it　must　have
  reached　fixed　boundaries；　clear　characteristics；　determined
  qualities　and　proportions；　it　must　have　traversed　the　long
  journey　from　a　conception　of　right　to　a　clearly　defined　and
  limited　provision　of　law；　the　fundamental　judgments　of　value　must
  be　condensed　to　a　fixed　conventional　scale；　which；　as　a　simple
  expression　of　complicated　and　manifold　conditions　still　grasps
  their　average　justly。　In　short　the　mechanism　of　positive　law
  limits　every　execution　of　material　justice。　We　have　our　formal
  right　only　at　the　expense　of　a　partial　material　injustice。
  A　demand　of　justice　in　rewarding　great　inventors　can　to…day
  only　become　positive　law　in　patent　legislation；　or　in　the　public
  arrangement　of　a　system　of　premiums；　in　which　the　method　of
  execution　is　just　as　important　as　the　principle。　A　demand　of
  justice　in　regard　to　a　progressive　income　tax　can　count　upon
  sympathy　only　when　the　demand　is　based　on　definite　figures　which
  correspond　to　the　average　feeling　of　right　of　to…day。　The　demand
  of　justice　that　the　employer　should　provide　better　for　his
  laborers　becomes　practicable；　when　we　demand　in　detail　and
  definitely　that　the　employer　carry　this　or　that　responsibility
  for　accidents；　that　he　put　such　and　such　a　contribution　into　the
  benefit　fund；　that　he　accept　the　verdict　of　umpires　with　regard
  to　wages。　That　the　laborers　should　share　in　the　profits　of　the
  enterprise　can　be　discussed　as　a　legal　measure　only　when　definite
  experience　shows　the　possibility　of　a　just　execution。　Otherwise
  such　a　law；　like　many　other　well…meant　propositions　for　the
  improvement　of　the　condition　of　the　lower　classes；　would；　in
  consequence　of　the　violation　of　formal　justice；　lead　to
  arbitrariness；　to　favoritism；　to　the　discontent　of　the　classes
  concerned。　This　is　confirmed　by　all　deeper　knowledge　of　the
  results　of　the　administration　of　our　poor　laws。　The　poor　law　is
  the　most　important　piece　of　socialism　which　the　German　social
  organization　contains。　It　is　a　piece　of　socialism　which　we　could
  not　spare　for　the　time　being；　because　we　do　not　know　a　better
  substitute；　nor　yet　how　to　meet　otherwise　by　more　perfect
  institution　is　the　inevitable　demand　of　justice；　that　every
  fellow…being　be　protected　from　starvation。　The　drawback　of　this
  poor　law　is　the　absolute　impossibility　of　enforcing　it　in　a
  formally　and　materially　just　way。　Arbitrariness；　chance；　red　tape
  govern　it；　and　therefore　the　assistance　given　has　in　many　cases
  such　unfavorable　psychological　effects；　leading　to　laziness