in　a　per　capita　assessment　which　we　would　consider　unbearable　in
  a　State　or　community。　It　accords　with　our　idea　of　justice　that
  all　young　and　vigorous　men　have　an　equal　duty　in　the　defence　of
  our　country；　whereas　for　other　public　and　social　purposes　they
  show　the　greatest　dissimilarities；　and　are　accordingly　treated
  differently。
  The　judgment　of　equality　or　inequality　is；　therefore；　always
  a　very　complicated　one。　Not　only　must　the　human　qualities　and
  deeds　be　considered　per　se；　but　also　in　their　relations　to　the
  aims　of　human　society。　In　one　grouping　and　classification　we　have
  in　view　only　some　one　certain　well…defined　quality　of　mankind；　in
  another　we　attempt　a　weighing　of　all　qualities；　we　seek　the
  average　human　being。　A　shipwrecked　party；　which　has　saved　itself
  in　a　boat　too　small　to　carry　all；　will　be　apt　to　value　all　their
  companions　equally　in　the　question　of　life　and　death；　and　cast
  lots　equally　for　all。　But　the　provisions　which　have　been　saved
  will　be　distributed　according　to　the　various　needs；　i。e。；　the
  seaman　at　the　oar　will　be　given　twice　as　much　as　the
  three…year…old　child。　In　a　tribe　of　warlike　nomads　the　bravest
  fighter；　in　the　jockey　club　the　best　rider；　is　fairly　given　a
  preference　which　would　appear　unjust　in　other　groups　of　men。　Even
  in　the　family　and　in　the　State　a　certain　kind　only　of　qualities
  or　actions　often　forms　the　basis　of　judgment。　The　judge　on　the
  bench　cares　only　for　certain　wrongful　acts；　the　　father　who
  wishes　to　bequeath　the　same　to　each　child；　because　he　thinks　this
  just；　will　not　deny　their　dissimilarity　in　many　respects。　The
  State；　however；　will　distribute　honors　and　dignities　in　the
  nearest　possible　relation　to　the　average　of　qualities　most
  important　to　it。　Every　election；　every　promotion　is　governed　by
  an　average　of　composite　impressions。　The　judgment　upon　a　just　or
  unjust　distribution　of　wealth　and　income　will　always　rest　on　a
  similar　basis。
  Whether　it　be　a　single　quality　or　action；　or　a　sum　of　them；
  those　which　are　considered　are　such　as　relate　to　the　aims　and
  ends　of　the　community。　And　they　may　naturally　be　of　the　greatest
  variety；　may　include；　for　instance；　even　physical　strength　or
  beauty。　In　an　athletic　club　it　seems　just　to　give　a　prize　to　the
  strongest　man；　in　tableaux　vivants　to　favor　a　beautiful　woman。　As
  a　rule；　however；　in　social　bodies　of　a　higher　order　those
  qualities　are　to　be　considered　which；　like　virtue　and　talent；　are
  of　the　greatest　service　to　them；　which　manifest　themselves　in
  actions　advantageous　to　the　community。　Often　there　are　very
  heterogeneous　qualities　to　be　compared；　as　the　aims　of　the　great
  moral　communities；　especially　of　the　State；　are　the　most　various。
  The　question　can　arise；　is　the　brave　general　or　the　great
  statesman；　the　great　painter　or　the　great　singer；　of　greater
  Universal　value？　The　decision　is　given　by　public　sentiment
  according　to　that　classification　of　purposes　which　appears　at　the
  moment　to　be　the　correct　one；　and　following　it　we　find　a　verdict
  of　the　public　which　declares　the　salary　of　a　general；　of　a
  secretary　of　state　or　of　a　singer　to　be　just　or　unjust。
  Quite　as　difficult　as　the　comparison　of　different　qualities
  or　acts　is　the　valuation　of　the　inequalities　in　the　same　sphere
  of　human　action。　That　the　statesman　deserves　a　higher　salary　than
  his　secretary；　that　the　head　of　a　great　firm　earns　more　than　his
  cashier；　and　the　latter　more　than　the　youngest　clerk；　that　the
  designer　in　a　factory　is　more　important　than　the　porter　　in　all
  this；　public　sentiment　and　valuation　agree。　But　when　the　grades
  of　inequality　are　to　be　measured　and　to　be　expressed　in　figures；
  which　is　indispensable　in　all　the　practical　questions；　there　will
  be　many　differences　of　opinion；　and　from　this　point　of　view
  indeed　the　opinion　might　be　upheld　that　the　psychological
  judgments　which　form　the　foundations　of　the　conceptions　of　the
  just　are　always　a　chaos　without　unity　and　clearness。　The
  objection　which　we　so　often　meet　on　the　field　of　aesthetic
  judgment　seems　obvious；　that　there　is　no　general　judgment；　that
  all　is　a　matter　of　individual　taste；　that　mere　individual
  processes　of　feeling　are　in　question；　which　are　immeasurably
  entangled；　and　which　a　fool　alone　could　regard　as　a　basis　of
  public　affairs　and　institutions。
  This　would　in　fact　be　true；　if　the　individual　thoughts　and
  sentiments　of　men　were；　indeed；　only　the　product　of　independent
  and　isolated　individuals。　But　every　disposition　of　mind；　every
  word；　every　idea；　every　conception；　more　profoundly　examined；　is
  the　result　not　of　an　individual；　but　of　a　social　process。　The
  greatest　genius　even　thinks　and　feels　as　a　member　of　the
  community；　ninety　per　cent　of　what　he　possesses　is　a　trust
  conveyed　to　him　by　forefathers；　teachers；　fellow…creatures；　to　be
  cherished　and　bequeathed　to　posterity。　The　majority　of　everyday
  persons　are　little　more　than　indifferent　vessels　into　which　flow
  the　feelings　and　thoughts　of　preceding　and　contemporary　millions。
  Language　is　a　product　of　society。　By　means　of　the　spoken　word；
  Herbart　says；　thought　and　feeling　pass　over　into　the　mind　of
  another。　There　they　originate　new　fillings　and　thoughts；　which
  forthwith　cross　the　same　bridge；　to　enrich　the　ideas　of　the
  first。　Thus　it　happens　that　the　smallest　part　of　our　thoughts
  originates　in　ourselves；　and　that　we　draw；　as　it　were；　from　a
  public　storehouse；　and　participate　in　a　universal　generation　of
  thoughts　to　which　each　individual　makes　only　a　comparatively
  scanty　contribution。
  Supposing　for　the　moment　that　the　feelings　on　which　the
  estimating　judgments　of　what　is　just　are　founded；　remain　wholly
  in　the　obscure　realm　of　mental　temperaments；　even　in　this　stage
  they　are　not　a　psychological　chaos；　but　a　rhythmic　movement　of
  masses。　And　the　more　they　rise　to　judgments　and　standards　of
  valuation；　the　more　the　mental　temperaments　are　condensed　through
  the　medium　of　public　discussion；　to　decisions　which　possess
  distinct　characteristics　and　criteria；　the　more　we　have　before　us
  mass…judgments　which　are　not　quite　uniform；　it　is　true；　but　still
  classed　according　to　masses；　grouped　according　to　centres　and
  authorities；　and　which　are　clear；　firm　and　generally　admitted。　On
  account　of　the　same　qualities；　in　regard　to　the　same　purposes；
  they　give　the　same　results　again　and　again　and　become　the　ruling
  standards　of　valuation。
  Every　period　has　prevailing　conventional　standards　of
  valuation　for　human　qualities　and　deeds；　virtues　and　vices；　it
  conventionally　values　this　kind　of　action　more　highly　than　that；
  and　so　demands　accordingly　in　one　case　greater　rewards　or　greater
  honors；　in　another　severer　punishments　or　smaller　incomes。　These
  conventional　standards　of　valuation　are　more　or　less　the
  starting…point　of　every　judgment　of　justice。　A　new　and　changed
  conception　is　measured　in　the　first　instance　by　its　deviation
  from　the　traditions。　As　every　fixation　of　price　in　society　is　not
  anew　the　result　of　demand　and　supply；　but　as　demand　and　supply
  only　try　to　modify　traditional　values；　so　it　is　also　with　the
  valuing　judgments　of　justice　or　injustice。　The　sum　of　that　which
  has　been　handed　down　as　just；　invariably　forms　the　real　basis　of
  all　judgments。　A　refined　intuition　of　right　demands　a　change　here
  and　there；　in　opposition　to　the　sum　total　of　conceptions　of　the
  just；　this　is　only　a　single；　but　an　important　point。
  In　existing　customs　and　in　existing　law；　these　conventional
  and　traditional　standards　of　valuation　have　their　real　bulwark；
  thus　they　have　assumed　a　form　which　firmly；　rigidly　and　uniformly
  governs　wide　circles　of　mankind；　and　in　that　well…defined　form
  they　are　handed　down　from　generation　to　generation。　But　they　also
  can　be　found　outside　of　this　solid　ground；　they　originate
  everywhere　from　repetitions　of　similar　cases　and　form　the　basis
  of　judgments　of　what　is　just。　These　judgments；　indeed；　arise
  daily　and　hourly　in　the　mind　of　every　thoughtful　man　in　regard　to
  all　social　relations　of　life；　they　are　not　confined　to　actual
  law。　In　family　life　the　sister　thinks　it　unjust　that　the　brother
  is　favored；　in　every　social　circle；　visits；　invitations；　even
  smiles；　looks　and　compliments　are　resented　as　unjust　preferences。
  The　mental　processes　are　the　same　whether　here　or　on　the　ground
  of　actual　law。　Everywhere　it　is　in　the　main　traditional　standards
  which　govern　our　judgment。　These　traditional　and　conventional
  standards　are　the　historical　precipitate　of　the　conception　of
  justice　of　hundreds　of　millions　of　men；　on　whose　shoulders　we
  stand。　Through　these　traditions　the　seemingly　irregular；　the
  casual　and　individual　takes　firm　body　and　lasting　form　in　spite
  of　constant　transformations　and　renewals。
  From　this　standpoint　we　can　easily　refute　the　naive　objection
  that　there　is　no　way　to　apply　the　conception　of　the　just　to
  economic　matters；　because；　it　is　said；　incomparable　quantities
  and　qualities　are　in　question；　the　different　kinds　of　work；　the
  functions　of　the　employer　and　the　day…laborer　being　immeasurable
  by　any　common　standard。　They　forget　that　the　formation　of　prices
  in　the　market　equalizes　that　which　is　seemingly　incomparable；　as；
  for　instance；　an　edition　of　Goethe　and　a　bottle　of　champagne；
  that　in　every　penal　code　t