The　Idea　of　Justice　in　Political　Economy
  by　Gustav　Schmoller
  1881
  Annals　of　the　American　Academy　of　Political　and　Social　Science
  Volume　4；　（1893…4）
  German　edition：　Jahrbuch　fur　Gesetzgebung　Verwallung；　und
  Volkswirtschaft。
  volume　1；　new　series　1881。
  Translated　by　Ernest　Halle　and　Carl　Schutz
  Is　there　a　just　distribution　of　economic　goods？　Or　should
  there　be？　This　is　a　question　which　is　raised　again　to…day；　a
  question　which　has　been　asked　as　long　as　human　society　and　social
  institutions　have　existed。　The　greatest　thinker　of　ancient
  history　asked　the　question　and　thousands　after　him　have　repeated
  it；　sages　and　scholars；　great　statesmen　and　hungry　proletarians；
  thoughtful　philanthropists　and　enthusiastic　idealists。
  To…day　the　question　seems　less　opportune　than　ever。　Even
  those　who　pride　themselves　on　their　idealism　declare　it　to　be　one
  of　the　useless　questions　which　nobody　can　answer。
  Aristotle's　ideas　of　distributive　justice　are　looked　down
  upon　as　antiquated　and　set　aside　by　the　progress　of　science。
  Comparing　superficially　the　phenomena　of　nature　with　the　social
  processes；　Darwin's　theory　of　the　struggle　for　existence；　which
  permits　the　strong　to　oppress　the　weak　and　excludes　all
  possibility　of　a　just　distribution　of　earthly　possessions；　is
  brought　into　play。　Many　political　economists　also　disregard　the
  question；　the　more　so　the　father　they　are　removed　from
  philosophical　inquiries；　and　the　more　they　delve　into　special
  questions　remaining；　despite　many　concessions　to　modern　schools；
  in　their　fundamental　views　in　the　beaten　paths　of　English　and
  German　dogmas；　which　know　no　other　categories　than　demand　and
  supply。　They　have；　as　a　rule；　a　vague；　half…conscious　feeling
  that　socialism　demands　a　juster　distribution　of　goods；　and　hence
  the　conservative　citizen　and　friend　of　order　has　no　choice　but　to
  oppose　this　idea。　Those　who　harbor　such　thoughts　and　feelings
  place　themselves；　it　is　true；　in　the　sharpest　contrast　to　the
  great　founders　of　modern　social　science。
  No　one　was　ever　more　convinced　that　his　proposed　reforms
  would　effect　a　more　just　or　indeed　an　absolutely　just
  distribution　of　goods　than　Adam　Smith　or　Turgot；　or　their　sincere
  followers。　Faith　in　the　justice　of　its　demands　was　the　backbone
  of　the　economics　of　natural　law。　As　a　consequence　of　〃natural
  freedom　and　justice；〃　Adam　Smith　requires　freedom　of　migration
  and　trade。　To　the　greatest　disciple　of　Adam　Smith；　for　thus　have
  Ricardo's　ideas　been　recently　correctly　summarized；　free
  individual　competition　appears　to　be　truest　justice　to　all
  laboring　humanity。　This　is　not　accidental。　No　great　social　or
  economic　reform　can　conquer　the　sluggish　resistance　which　opposes
  it　by　merely　showing　its　utility。　Only　when　it　can　be　made　to
  appear　that　what　is　demanded　is　the　demand　of　justice；　does　it
  inflame　and　move　the　masses。　For　years　I　have　watched　in　public
  discussions　and　in　economic　publications　hen　and　where　the
  question　of　justice　was　drawn　into　economic　matters；　and　I　have
  found　that　involuntarily　it　occurs　almost　everywhere。　In
  discussing　the　bank　question；　the　opponent　of　unsecured　notes
  declares　them　to　be　an　injustice；　when　duties　are　proposed；　the
  free…trader　claims　first　that　they　are　unjust；　then　immoral；　and
  only　in　the　third　place　that　they　are　economically　harmful。　In
  all　discussions　about　the　change　in　the　German　customs　policy　of
  1878；　both　sides　tried　to　prove　that　what　the　opponent　desired
  especially　injured　the　working　man　and　the　small　capitalist；　and
  thus　affected　in　the　most　unjust　way　the　distribution　of　income
  and　wealth。　A　well…known　politician；　who　declares　the　discussion
  of　justice　in　the　distribution　of　income　and　wealth　to　be
  superfluous；　falls　into　the　same　mistake　with　which　he　reproaches
  his　opponents；　in　his　polemic　against　Marx。　He　declares　the
  present　distribution　of　wealth　in　Germany　to　be　legitimate；
  because　it　was　not　the　possession　of　colonies；　not　the　work　of
  slaves；　but　the　honest　labor　of　German　citizens　which　created
  this　wealth。　He　thus　unconsciously　calls　attention　quite
  correctly　to　the　central　idea　which　to…day　governs　the　popular
  mind　in　regard　to　the　just　distribution　of　wealth。　A　leading
  speaker　of　the　free…traders；　in　the　Reichstag；　said　that　to…day
  the　naive　advocacy　of　low　wages　dare　no　longer　venture　into　the
  light。　To…day　we　consider　conditions　economically　sound　only　when
  they　guarantee　to　each　participant　in　the　work　a　just
  participation　in　the　earnings。　And　he　adds：　〃The　economic　ideal
  is　reached　when　the　greatest　production　and　the　most　uniform
  distribution　among　the　participants　of　the　profits　earned
  coincide。〃
  Whether　a　just　distribution　of　goods　exists　in　reality　or
  not；　a　question　which　for　the　present　I　will　leave　unanswered；
  still　it　is　always　spoken　of；　there　is　a　general　belief　in　it；
  this　belief　is　speculated　upon；　and　it　has　its　practical
  consequences。
  This　brings　us　to　the　correct　formulation　of　the　question
  with　which　we　must　begin。　We　would　not　from　any　principle
  whatsoever　logically　deduce　a　formula　whose　strict　application
  would　at　all　times　produce　justice；　we　would　simply　and　modestly
  put　the　question；　How　does　it　happen　that　economic　transactions
  and　social　phenomena　so　often　bring　forth　a　favorable　or　adverse
  criticism　which　asserts　that　this　is　just；　that　unjust？　When　we
  have　a　correct　answer　to　this；　then　it　will　be　easy　to　draw
  further　conclusions　and　to　decide　what　force；　weight　and
  influence　this　approving　or　disapproving　judgment　will　exercise
  retroactively　on　the　social　and　economic　phenomena。
  I
  Even　he　who　reduces　all　human　impulses　and　actions　to　the
  feelings　of　pleasure　and　pain　must　admit　that；　as　far　as　we　know
  human　nature；　there　are；　besides　lower　impulses；　higher
  intellectual；　aesthetic　and　moral　ones。　They　give　to　life　those
  ideal　aims；　from　them　grow　those　conceptions　which　accompany　and
  influence　all　human　life；　all　actions；　all　institutions；　as　ideal
  visions　of　what　ought　to　be。　Should　we　call　the　essence　of　what
  ought　to　be；　the　abstract　Good；　the　abstract　Just　would　be　part
  of　it。　Justice　is　a　human　virtue。　It　has　been　called　the　virtue
  of　virtues。　It　is　the　permanent　habit　of　mankind　to　adapt　its
  actions　to　the　ideas　which　we　call　the　abstract　Just。　The　Just
  per　se；　anything　absolutely　just；　is　found　in　reality　as　little
  and　as　seldom　as　anything　absolutely　good。　The　Just　is　always　an
  ideal　conception；　to　which　reality　may　approach；　but　which　it
  will　never　attain；　the　ethical　judgment　that　an　action　or　the
  deeds　of　a　man　are　just　always　affirms　only　that　his　deeds
  correspond　to　an　ideal　conception；　and　one　single　action　may
  perhaps　completely　do　this；　but　a　man's　whole　life；　society　as　a
  whole　and　its　actions　can　only　approach　it。　What　kind　of　an
  action　do　we　call　just？　The　word　is　used　in　different　senses。　We
  often　use　it　merely　to　indicate　that　the　individual　is　conforming
  to　the　laws　of　the　whole；　that　his　actions　are　in　accord　with
  positive　law。　We　use　it　also　in　the　much　broader　sense　to
  describe　his　actions；　not　so　much　as　corresponding　to　positive
  law　as　to　its　ideals。　We　oppose　a　right　that　ought　to　be　…　as　the
  just　…　to　the　positive　law；　judge　the　latter　by　the　former；　and
  call　actual　law　unjust　in　so　far　as　it　does　not　correspond　to
  this　ideal。　The　conceptions　which　guide　us　herein；　and　from　which
  we　derive　our　idea　of　the　just；　are　by　no　means　simple；　on　the
  one　hand　the　peculiar　nature　of　legal　prescriptions；　being
  certain　formal　rules　of　social　intercourse；　and　on　the　other　the
  ideal　aims　of　social　life　which　determine　the　material　contents
  of　law；　combine　to　create　this　ideal。　Conceptions　of　the　perfect
  commonwealth　and　of　the　perfect　individual　are　associated　in　it。
  When　we　speak　of　what　is　just　in　a　narrower　sense；　when　we　use
  the　word　not　as　it　is　used　in　schools；　but　in　the　daily　usage　of
  common　speech；　we　consider　only　one　of　these　conceptions；　or
  better；　only　one　of　these　co…operating　spheres　of　conception。
  When　we　speak　of　a　just　judge；　a　just　punishment；　or　just
  institutions；　we　usually　conceive　of　a　society；　a　number　of
  people；　a　comparison　of　them；　and　a　fair　distribution　of　good　and
  of　bad；　of　that　which　causes　pain　and　pleasure；　measured　by
  uniform　objective　standards。　The　specific　conception　of　justice；
  the　one　which　principally　interests　us　here；　is　that　of　justice
  in　distribution；　it　always　presupposes　the　proportionality　of　two
  opposite　quantities；　one　of　human　beings　and　one　of　goods　which
  are　to　be　distributed。　We　necessarily　classify　in　series；
  according　to　objective　characteristics；　every　multiplicity　of
  persons　which　appears　to　us　in　some　respect　as　a　unity；　and　the
  ideal　conception　of　what　ought　to　be；　demands　the　distribution　of
  goods　and　evils　according　to　this　classification。　By　this
  standard　our　ideal　always　measures　reality。　Our　moral　judgment　is
  always　active　in　estimating　the　actions　of　men；　their　vices　as
  well　as　their　virtues　and　their　achievements　that　is　in　comparing
  and　classifying　them。　Our　social　instinct　is　ever　active　in
  fixing　the　relation　of　the　individual　and　his　doings　to　the　whole
  of　the　community；　of　the　State　and