his　condition；〃　says　a　contemporary　writer；　〃wants　to　be　something
  by　command　of　the　king。〃
  It　was　not　merely　the　〃natural　vanity〃　of　which　M。　de　Tocqueville
  accuses　his　countrymen；　which　stirred　up　in　them　this　eagerness
  after　place；　for　we　see　the　same　eagerness　in　other　nations　of　the
  Continent；　who　cannot　be　accused　（as　wholes）　of　that　weakness。　　The
  fact　is；　a　Government　place；　or　a　Government　decoration；　cross；
  ribbon；　or　what　not；　is；　in　a　country　where　self…government　is
  unknown　or　dead；　the　only　method；　save　literary　fame；　which　is　left
  to　men　in　order　to　assert　themselves　either　to　themselves　or　their
  fellow…men。
  A　British　or　American　shopkeeper　or　farmer　asks　nothing　of　his
  Government。　　He　can；　if　he　chooses；　be　elected　to　some　local　office
  （generally　unsalaried）　by　the　votes　of　his　fellow…citizens。　　But
  that　is　his　right；　and　adds　nothing　to　his　respectability。　　The　test
  of　that　latter；　in　a　country　where　all　honest　callings　are　equally
  honourable；　is　the　amount　of　money　he　can　make；　and　a　very　sound
  practical　test　that　is；　in　a　country　where　intellect　and　capital　are
  free。　　Beyond　that；　he　is　what　he　is；　and　wishes　to　be　no　more；　save
  what　he　can　make　himself。　　He　has　his　rights；　guaranteed　by　law　and
  public　opinion；　and　as　long　as　he　stands　within　them；　and　（as　he
  well　phrases　it）　behaves　like　a　gentleman；　he　considers　himself　as
  good　as　any　man；　and　so　he　is。　　But　under　the　bureaucratic　Regime　of
  the　Continent；　if　a　man　had　not　〃something　by　command　of　the　king；〃
  he　was　nothing；　and　something　he　naturally　wished　to　be；　even　by
  means　of　a　Government　which　he　disliked　and　despised。　　So　in　France；
  where　innumerable　petty　posts　were　regular　articles　of　sale；　anyone；
  it　seems；　who　had　saved　a　little　money；　found　it　most　profitable　to
  invest　it　in　a　beadledom　of　some　kindto　the　great　detriment　of　the
  country；　for　he　thus　withdrew　his　capital　from　trade；　but　to　his　own
  clear　gain；　for　he　thereby　purchased　some　immunity　from　public
  burdens；　and；　as　it　were；　compounded　once　and　for　all　for　his　taxes。
  The　petty　German　princes；　it　seems；　followed　the　example　of　France；
  and　sold　their　little　beadledoms　likewise；　but　even　where　offices
  were　not　sold；　they　must　be　obtained　by　any　and　every　means；　by
  everyone　who　desired　not　to　be　as　other　men　were；　and　to　become
  Notables；　as　they　were　called　in　France；　so　he　migrated　from　the
  country　into　the　nearest　town；　and　became　a　member　of　some　small
  body…guild；　town　council；　or　what　not；　bodies　which　were　infinite　in
  number。　　In　one　small　town　M。　de　Tocqueville　discovers　thirty…six
  such　bodies；　〃separated　from　each　other　by　diminutive　privileges；
  the　least　honourable　of　which　was　still　a　mark　of　honour。〃
  Quarrelling　perpetually　with　each　other　for　precedence；　despising
  and　oppressing　the　very　menu　peuple　from　whom　they　had　for　the　most
  part　sprung；　these　innumerable　small　bodies；　instead　of　uniting
  their　class；　only　served　to　split　it　up　more　and　more；　and　when　the
  Revolution　broke　them　up；　once　and　for　all；　with　all　other
  privileges　whatsoever；　no　bond　of　union　was　left；　and　each　man　stood
  alone；　proud　of　his　〃individuality〃his　complete　social　isolation；
  till　he　discovered　that；　in　ridding　himself　of　superiors；　he　had　rid
  himself　also　of　fellows；　fulfilling；　every　man　in　his　own　person；
  the　old　fable　of　the　bundle　of　sticks；　and　had　to　submit；　under　the
  Consulate　and　the　Empire；　to　a　tyranny　to　which　the　Ancien　Regime
  was　freedom　itself。
  For；　in　France　at　least；　the　Ancien　Regime　was　no　tyranny。　　The
  middle　and　upper　classes　had　individual　libertyit　may　be；　only　too
  much；　the　liberty　of　disobeying　a　Government　which　they　did　not
  respect。　　〃However　submissive　the　French　may　have　been　before　the
  Revolution　to　the　will　of　the　king；　one　sort　of　obedience　was
  altogether　unknown　to　them。　　They　knew　not　what　it　was　to　bow　before
  an　illegitimate　and　contested　powera　power　but　little　honoured；
  frequently　despised；　but　willingly　endured　because　it　may　be
  serviceable；　or　because　it　may　hurt。　　To　that　degrading　form　of
  servitude　they　were　ever　strangers。　　The　king　inspired　them　with
  feelings　。　。　。　which　have　become　incomprehensible　to　this　generation
  。　。　。　They　loved　him　with　the　affection　due　to　a　father；　they
  revered　him　with　the　respect　due　to　God。　　In　submitting　to　the　most
  arbitrary　of　his　commands；　they　yielded　less　to　compulsion　than　to
  loyalty；　and　thus　they　frequently　preserved　great　freedom　of　mind；
  even　in　the　most　complete　dependence。　　This　liberty；　irregular；
  intermittent；〃　says　M。　de　Tocqueville；　〃helped　to　form　those
  vigorous　characters；　those　proud　and　daring　spirits；　which　were　to
  make　the　French　Revolution　at　once　the　object　of　the　admiration　and
  the　terror　of　succeeding　generations。〃
  This　libertytoo　much　akin　to　anarchy；　in　which　indeed　it　issued
  for　awhileseems　to　have　asserted　itself　in　continual　petty
  resistance　to　officials　whom　they　did　not　respect；　and　who；　in　their
  turn；　were　more　than　a　little　afraid　of　the　very　men　out　of　whose
  ranks　they　had　sprung。
  The　French　Governmentone　may　say；　every　Government　on　the
  Continent　in　those　dayshad　the　special　weakness　of　all
  bureaucracies；　namely；　that　want　of　moral　force　which　compels　them
  to　fall　back　at　last　on　physical　force；　and　transforms　the　ruler
  into　a　bully；　and　the　soldier　into　a　policeman　and　a　gaoler。　　A
  Government　of　parvenus；　uncertain　of　its　own　position；　will　be
  continually　trying　to　assert　itself　to　itself；　by　vexatious
  intermeddling　and　intruding　pretensions；　and　then；　when　it　meets
  with　the　resistance　of　free　and　rational　spirits；　will　either　recoil
  in　awkward　cowardice；　or　fly　into　a　passion；　and　appeal　to　the
  halter　and　the　sword。　　Such　a　Government　can　never　take　itself　for
  granted；　because　it　knows　that　it　is　not　taken　for　granted　by　the
  people。　　It　never　can　possess　the　quiet　assurance；　the　courteous
  dignity；　without　swagger；　yet　without　hesitation；　which　belongs　to
  hereditary　legislators；　by　which　term　is　to　be　understood；　not
  merely　kings；　not　merely　noblemen；　but　every　citizen　of　a　free
  nation；　however　democratic；　who　has　received　from　his　forefathers
  the　right；　the　duty；　and　the　example　of　self…government。
  Such　was　the　political　and　social　state　of　the　Ancien　Regime；　not
  only　in　France；　but　if　we　are　to　trust　（as　we　must　trust）　M。　de
  Tocqueville；　in　almost　every　nation　in　Europe；　except　Britain。
  And　as　for　its　moral　state。　　We　must　look　for　thatif　we　have　need；
  which　happily　all　have　notin　its　lighter　literature。
  I　shall　not　trouble　you　with　criticisms　on　French　memoirsof　which
  those　of　Madame　de　Sevigne　are　on　the　whole；　the　most　painful　（as
  witness　her　comments　on　the　Marquise　de　Brinvilliers's　execution）；
  because　written　by　a　woman　better　and　more　human　than　ordinary。　　Nor
  with　〃Menagiana；〃　or　other　'ana'sas　vain　and　artificial　as　they
  are　often　foul；　nor　with　novels　and　poems；　long　since　deservedly
  forgotten。　　On　the　first　perusal　of　this　lighter　literature；　you
  will　be　charmed　with　the　ease；　grace；　lightness　with　which
  everything　is　said。　　On　the　second；　you　will　be　somewhat　cured　of
  your　admiration；　as　you　perceive　how　little　there　is　to　say。　　The
  head　proves　to　be　nothing　but　a　cunning　mask；　with　no　brains　inside。
  Especially　is　this　true　of　a　book；　which　I　must　beg　those　who　have
  read　it　already；　to　recollect。　　To　read　it　I　recommend　no　human
  being。　　We　may　consider　it；　as　it　was　considered　in　its　time；　the
  typical　novel　of　the　Ancien　Regime。　　A　picture　of　Spanish　society；
  written　by　a　Frenchman；　it　was　held　to　beand　doubtless　with
  reasona　picture　of　the　whole　European　world。　　Its　French　editor
  （of　1836）　calls　it　a　grande　epopee；　〃one　of　the　most　prodigious
  efforts　of　intelligence；　exhausting　all　forms　of　humanity〃in　fact；
  a　second　Shakespeare；　according　to　the　lights　of　the　year　1715。　　I
  mean；　of　course；　〃Gil　Blas。〃　　So　picturesque　is　the　book；　that　it
  has　furnished　inexhaustible　motifs　to　the　draughtsman。　　So　excellent
  is　its　workmanship；　that　the　enthusiastic　editor　of　1836　tells　us
  and　doubtless　he　knows　bestthat　it　is　the　classic　model　of　the
  French　tongue；　and　that；　as　Le　Sage　〃had　embraced　all　that　belonged
  to　man　in　his　composition；　he　dared　to　prescribe　to　himself　to
  embrace　the　whole　French　language　in　his　work。〃　　It　has　been　the
  parent　of　a　whole　school　of　literaturethe　Bible　of　tens　of
  thousands；　with　admiring　commentators　in　plenty；　on　whose　souls　may
  God　have　mercy！
  And　no　wonder。　　The　book　has　a　solid　value；　and　will　always　have；
  not　merely　from　its　perfect　art　（according　to　its　own　measure　and
  intention）；　but　from　its　perfect　truthfulness。　　It　is　the　Ancien
  Regime　itself。　　It　set　forth　to　the　men　thereof；　themselves；　without
  veil　or　cowardly　reticence　of　any　kind；　and　inasmuch　as　every　man
  loves　himself；　the　Ancien　Regime　loved　〃Gil　Blas；〃　and　said；　〃The
  problem　of　humanity　is　solved　at　last。〃　　But；　ye　long…suffering
  powers　of　heaven；　what　a　solut