little　news；　or　very　little　which　it　was　politic　to　publish。　　One
  reports　that　a　smuggler　of　salt　has　been　hung；　and　has　displayed
  great　courage；　another　that　a　woman　in　his　district　has　had　three
  girls　at　a　birth；　another　that　a　dreadful　storm　has　happened；　but
  has　done　no　mischief；　a　fourthliving　in　some　specially　favoured
  Utopiadeclares　that　in　spite　of　all　his　efforts　he　has　found
  nothing　worth　recording；　but　that　he　himself　will　subscribe　to　so
  useful　a　journal；　and　will　exhort　all　respectable　persons　to　follow
  his　example：　　in　spite　of　which　loyal　endeavours；　the　journal　seems
  to　have　proved　a　failure；　to　the　great　disgust　of　the　king　and　his
  minister；　who　had　of　course　expected　to　secure　fine　weather　by
  nailing；　like　the　schoolboy　before　a　holiday；　the　hand　of　the
  weather…glass。
  Well　had　it　been；　if　the　intermeddling　of　this　bureaucracy　had
  stopped　there。　　But；　by　a　process　of　evocation　（as　it　was　called）；
  more　and　more　causes；　criminal　as　well　as　civil；　were　withdrawn　from
  the　regular　tribunals；　to　those　of　the　intendants　and　the　Council。
  Before　the　intendant　all　the　lower　order　of　people　were　generally
  sent　for　trial。　　Bread…riots　were　a　common　cause　of　such　trials；　and
  M。　de　Tocqueville　asserts　that　he　has　found　sentences；　delivered　by
  the　intendant；　and　a　local　council　chosen　by　himself；　by　which　men
  were　condemned　to　the　galleys；　and　even　to　death。　　Under　such　a
  system；　under　which　an　intendant　must　have　felt　it　his　interest　to
  pretend　at　all　risks；　that　all　was　going　right；　and　to　regard　any
  disturbance　as　a　dangerous　exposure　of　himself　and　his　chiefsone
  can　understand　easily　enough　that　scene　which　Mr。　Carlyle　has
  dramatised　from　Lacretelle；　concerning　the　canaille；　the　masses；　as
  we　used　to　call　them　a　generation　since：
  〃A　dumb　generationtheir　voice　only　an　inarticulate　cry。
  Spokesman；　in　the　king's　council；　in　the　world's　forum；　they　have
  none　that　finds　credence。　　At　rare　intervals　（as　now；　in　1775）　they
  will　fling　down　their　hoes；　and　hammers；　and；　to　the　astonishment　of
  mankind；　flock　hither　and　thither；　dangerous；　aimless；　get　the
  length　even　of　Versailles。　　Turgot　is　altering　the　corn　trade；
  abrogating　the　absurdest　corn　laws；　there　is　dearth；　real；　or　were
  it　even　factitious；　an　indubitable　scarcity　of　broad。　　And　so；　on
  the　2nd　day　of　May；　1775；　these　waste　multitudes　do　here；　at
  Versailles　chateau；　in　widespread　wretchedness；　in　sallow　faces；
  squalor；　winged　raggedness；　present　as　in　legible　hieroglyphic
  writing　their　petition　of　grievances。　　The　chateau…gates　must　be
  shut；　but　the　king　will　appear　on　the　balcony　and　speak　to　them。
  They　have　seen　the　king's　face；　their　petition　of　grievances　has
  been；　if　not　read；　looked　at。　　In　answer；　two　of　them　are　hanged；　on
  a　new　gallows　forty　feet　high；　and　the　rest　driven　back　to　their
  dens　for　a　time。〃
  Of　course。　　What　more　exasperating　and　inexpiable　insult　to　the
  ruling　powers　was　possible　than　this？　　To　persist　in　being　needy　and
  wretched；　when　a　whole　bureaucracy　is　toiling　day　and　night　to　make
  them　prosperous　and　happy？　　An　insult　only　to　be　avenged　in　blood。
  Remark　meanwhile；　that　this　centralised　bureaucracy　was　a　failure；
  that　after　all　the　trouble　taken　to　govern　these　masses；　they　were
  not　governed；　in　the　sense　of　being　made　better；　and　not　worse。　　The
  truth　is；　that　no　centralised　bureaucracy；　or　so…called　〃paternal
  government；〃　yet　invented　on　earth；　has　been　anything　but　a　failure；
  or　is　it　like　to　be　anything　else：　　because　it　is　founded　on　an
  error；　because　it　regards　and　treats　men　as　that　which　they　are　not；
  as　things；　and　not　as　that　which　they　are；　as　persons。　　If　the
  bureaucracy　were　a　mere　Briareus　giant；　with　a　hundred　hands；
  helping　the　weak　throughout　the　length　and　breadth　of　the　empire；
  the　system　might　be　at　least　tolerable。　　But　what　if　the　Government
  were　not　a　Briareus　with　a　hundred　hands；　but　a　Hydra　with　a　hundred
  heads　and　mouths；　each　far　more　intent　on　helping　itself　than　on
  helping　the　people？　　What　if　sub…delegates　and　other　officials；
  holding　office　at　the　will　of　the　intendant；　had　to　live；　and　even
  provide　against　a　rainy　day？　　What　if　intendants；　holding　office　at
  the　will　of　the　Comptroller…General；　had　to　do　more　than　live；　and
  found　it　prudent　to　realise　as　large　a　fortune　as　possible；　not　only
  against　disgrace；　but　against　success；　and　the　dignity　fit　for　a　new
  member　of　the　Noblesse　de　la　Robe？　　Would　not　the　system；　then；　soon
  become　intolerable？　　Would　there　not　be　evil　times　for　the　masses；
  till　they　became　something　more　than　masses？
  It　is　an　ugly　name；　that　of　〃The　Masses；〃　for　the　great　majority　of
  human　beings　in　a　nation。　　He　who　uses　it　speaks　of　them　not　as
  human　beings；　but　as　things；　and　as　things　not　bound　together　in　one
  living　body；　but　lying　in　a　fortuitous　heap。　　A　swarm　of　ants　is　not
  a　mass。　　It　has　a　polity　and　a　unity。　　Not　the　ants　but　the　fir…
  needles　and　sticks；　of　which　the　ants　have　piled　their　nest；　are　a
  mass。
  The　term；　I　believe；　was　invented　during　the　Ancien　Regime。　　Whether
  it　was　or　not；　it　expresses　very　accurately　the　life　of　the　many　in
  those　days。　　No　one　would　speak；　if　he　wished　to　speak　exactly；　of
  the　masses　of　the　United　States；　for　there　every　man　is；　or　is
  presumed　to　be；　a　personage；　with　his　own　independence；　his　own
  activities；　his　own　rights　and　duties。　　No　one；　I　believe；　would
  have　talked　of　the　masses　in　the　old　feudal　times；　for　then　each
  individual　was　someone's　man；　bound　to　his　master　by　ties　of　mutual
  service；　just　or　unjust；　honourable　or　base；　but　still　giving　him　a
  personality　of　duties　and　rights；　and　dividing　him　from　his　class。
  Dividing；　I　say。　　The　poor　of　the　Middle　Age　had　little　sense　of　a
  common　humanity。　　Those　who　owned　allegiance　to　the　lord　in　the　next
  valley　were　not　their　brothers；　and　at　their　own　lord's　bidding；
  they　buckled　on　sword　and　slew　the　next　lord's　men；　with　joyful
  heart　and　good　conscience。　　Only　now　and　then　misery　compressed　them
  into　masses；　and　they　ran　together；　as　sheep　run　together　to　face　a
  dog。　　Some　wholesale　wrong　made　them　aware　that　they　were　brothers；
  at　least　in　the　power　of　starving；　and　they　joined　in　the　cry　which
  was　heard；　I　believe；　in　Mecklenburg　as　late　as　1790：　　〃Den　Edelman
  wille　wi　dodschlagen。〃　　Then；　in　Wat　Tyler's　insurrections；　in
  Munster　Anabaptisms；　in　Jacqueries；　they　proved　themselves　to　be
  masses；　if　nothing　better；　striking　for　awhile；　by　the　mere　weight
  of　numbers；　blows　terrible；　though　aimlesssoon　to　be　dispersed　and
  slain　in　their　turn　by　a　disciplined　and　compact　aristocracy。　　Yet
  not　always　dispersed；　if　they　could　find　a　leader；　as　the　Polish
  nobles　discovered　to　their　cost　in　the　middle　of　the　seventeenth
  century。　　Then　Bogdan　the　Cossack；　a　wild　warrior；　not　without　his
  sins；　but　having　deserved　well　of　James　Sobieski　and　the　Poles；
  found　that　the　neighbouring　noble's　steward　had　taken　a　fancy　to　his
  windmill　and　his　farm　upon　the　Dnieper。　　He　was　thrown　into　prison
  on　a　frivolous　charge；　and　escaped　to　the　Tatars；　leaving　his　wife
  dishonoured；　his　house　burnt；　his　infant　lost　in　the　flames；　his
  eldest　son　scourged　for　protesting　against　the　wrong。　　And　he
  returned；　at　the　head　of　an　army　of　Tatars；　Socinians；　Greeks；　or
  what　not；　to　set　free　the　serfs；　and　exterminate　Jesuits；　Jews；　and
  nobles；　throughout　Podolia；　Volhynia；　Red　Russia；　to　desecrate　the
  altars　of　God；　and　slay　his　servants；　to　destroy　the　nobles　by
  lingering　tortures；　to　strip　noble　ladies　and　maidens；　and　hunt　them
  to　death　with　the　whips　of　his　Cossacks；　and　after　defeating　the
  nobles　in　battle　after　battle；　to　inaugurate　an　era　of　misery　and
  anarchy　from　which　Poland　never　recovered。
  Thus　did　the　masses　of　Southern　Poland　discover；　for　one　generation
  at　least；　that　they　were　not　many　things；　but　one　thing；　a　class；
  capable　of　brotherhood　and　unity；　though；　alas！　only　of　such　as
  belongs　to　a　pack　of　wolves。　　But　such　outbursts　as　this　were　rare
  exceptions。　　In　general；　feudalism　kept　the　people　divided；　and
  therefore　helpless。　　And　as　feudalism　died　out；　and　with　it　the
  personal　self…respect　and　loyalty　which　were　engendered　by　the　old
  relations　of　master　and　servant；　the　division　still　remained；　and
  the　people；　in　France　especially；　became　merely　masses；　a　swarm　of
  incoherent　and　disorganised　things　intent　on　the　necessaries　of
  daily　bread；　like　mites　crawling　over　each　other　in　a　cheese。
  Out　of　this　mass　were　struggling　upwards　perpetually；　all　who　had　a
  little　ambition；　a　little　scholarship；　or　a　little　money；
  endeavouring　to　become　members　of　the　middle　class　by　obtaining　a
  Government　appointment。　　〃A　man；〃　says　M。　de　Tocqueville；　〃endowed
  with　some　education　and　small　means；　thought　it　not　decorous　to　die
  without　having　been　a　Government　officer。〃　　〃Every　man；　according　to
  his　condition；〃　says　a　contemporary　writer；　〃wants　to　be　something
  by　command　of　the　king。〃
  It　was　not　mere