social　order；　there　is　an　order　which　is　best　supported　by　a
  religion　which　is　adverse　to　free　thought；　free　speech；　free
  conscience；　free　communion　between　man　and　God。　　The　more　enervating
  the　superstition；　the　more　exacting　and　tyrannous　its　priesthood；
  the　more　it　will　do　our　work；　if　we　help　it　to　do　its　own。　　If　it
  permit　us　to　enslave　the　body；　we　will　permit　it　to　enslave　the
  soul。〃
  And　so　may　be　inaugurated　a　period　of　that　organised　anarchy　of
  which　the　poet　says：
  It　is　not　life；　but　death；　when　nothing　stirs。
  LECTURE　IICENTRALISATION
  The　degradation　of　the　European　nobility　caused；　of　course；　the
  increase　of　the　kingly　power；　and　opened　the　way　to　central
  despotisms。　　The　bourgeoisie；　the　commercial　middle　class；　whatever
  were　its　virtues；　its　value；　its　real　courage；　were　never　able　to
  stand　alone　against　the　kings。　　Their　capital；　being　invested　in
  trade；　was　necessarily　subject　to　such　sudden　dangers　from　war；
  political　change；　bad　seasons；　and　so　forth；　that　its　holders；
  however　individually　brave；　were　timid　as　a　class。　　They　could　never
  hold　out　on　strike　against　the　governments；　and　had　to　submit　to　the
  powers　that　were；　whatever　they　were；　under　penalty　of　ruin。
  But　on　the　Continent；　and　especially　in　France　and　Germany；　unable
  to　strengthen　itself　by　intermarriage　with　the　noblesse；　they
  retained　that　timidity　which　is　the　fruit　of　the　insecurity　of
  trade；　and　had　to　submit　to　a　more　and　more　centralised　despotism；
  and　grow　up　as　they　could；　in　the　face　of　exasperating　hindrances　to
  wealth；　to　education；　to　the　possession；　in　many　parts　of　France；　of
  large　landed　estates；　leaving　the　noblesse　to　decay　in　isolated
  uselessness　and　weakness；　and　in　many　cases　debt　and　poverty。
  The　systemor　rather　anarchyaccording　to　which　France　was
  governed　during　this　transitional　period；　may　be　read　in　that　work
  of　M。　de　Tocqueville's　which　I　have　already　quoted；　and　which　is
  accessible　to　all　classes；　through　Mr。　H。　Reeve's　excellent
  translation。　　Every　student　of　history　is；　of　course；　well
  acquainted　with　that　book。　　But　as　there　is　reason　to　fear；　from
  language　which　is　becoming　once　more　too　common；　both　in　speech　and
  writing；　that　the　general　public　either　do　not　know　it；　or　have　not
  understood　it；　I　shall　take　the　liberty　of　quoting　from　it　somewhat
  largely。　　I　am　justified　in　so　doing　by　the　fact　that　M。　de
  Tocqueville's　book　is　founded　on　researches　into　the　French
  Archives；　which　have　been　made　（as　far　as　I　am　aware）　only　by　him；
  and　contains　innumerable　significant　facts；　which　are　to　be　found
  （as　far　as　I　am　aware）　in　no　other　accessible　work。
  The　French　peoplesays　M。　de　Tocquevillemade；　in　1789；　the
  greatest　effort　which　was　ever　made　by　any　nation　to　cut；　so　to
  speak；　their　destiny　in　halves；　and　to　separate　by　an　abyss　that
  which　they　had　heretofore　been；　from　that　which　they　sought　to
  become　hereafter。　　But　he　had　long　thought　that　they　had　succeeded
  in　this　singular　attempt　much　less　than　was　supposed　abroad；　and
  less　than　they　had　at　first　supposed　themselves。　　He　was　convinced
  that　they　had　unconsciously　retained；　from　the　former　state　of
  society；　most　of　the　sentiments；　the　habits；　and　even　the　opinions；
  by　means　of　which　they　had　effected　the　destruction　of　that　state　of
  things；　and　that；　without　intending　it；　they　had　used　its　remains　to
  rebuild　the　edifice　of　modern　society。　　This　is　his　thesis；　and　this
  he　proves；　it　seems　to　me；　incontestably　by　documentary　evidence。
  Not　only　does　he　find　habits　which　we　supposeor　supposed　till
  latelyto　have　died　with　the　eighteenth　century；　still　living　and
  working；　at　least　in　France；　in　the　nineteenth；　but　the　new　opinions
  which　we　look　on　usually　as　the　special　children　of　the　nineteenth
  century；　he　shows　to　have　been　born　in　the　eighteenth。　　France；　he
  considers；　is　still　at　heart　what　the　Ancien　Regime　made　her。
  He　shows　that　the　hatred　of　the　ruling　caste；　the　intense
  determination　to　gain　and　keep　equality；　even　at　the　expense　of
  liberty；　had　been　long　growing　up；　under　those　influences　of　which　I
  spoke　in　my　first　lecture。
  He　shows；　moreover；　that　the　acquiescence　in　a　centralised
  administration；　the　expectation　that　the　government　should　do
  everything　for　the　people；　and　nothing　for　themselves；　the
  consequent　loss　of　local　liberties；　local　peculiarities；　the
  helplessness　of　the　towns　and　the　parishes：　　and　all　which　issued　in
  making　Paris　France；　and　subjecting　the　whole　of　a　vast　country　to
  the　arbitrary　dictates　of　a　knot　of　despots　in　the　capital；　was　not
  the　fruit　of　the　Revolution；　but　of　the　Ancien　Regime　which　preceded
  it；　and　that　Robespierre　and　his　〃Comite　de　Salut　Public；〃　and
  commissioners　sent　forth　to　the　four　winds　of　heaven　in　bonnet　rouge
  and　carmagnole　complete；　to　build　up　and　pull　down；　according　to
  their　wicked　will；　were　only　handling；　somewhat　more　roughly；　the
  same　wires　which　had　been　handled　for　several　generations　by　the
  Comptroller…General　and　Council　of　State；　with　their　provincial
  intendants。
  〃Do　you　know；〃　said　Law　to　the　Marquis　d'Argenson；　〃that　this
  kingdom　of　France　is　governed　by　thirty　intendants？　　You　have
  neither　parliament；　nor　estates；　nor　governors。　　It　is　upon　thirty
  masters　of　request；　despatched　into　the　provinces；　that　their　evil
  or　their　good；　their　fertility　or　their　sterility；　entirely　depend。〃
  To　do　everything　for　the　people；　and　let　them　do　nothing　for
  themselvesthis　was　the　Ancien　Regime。　　To　be　more　wise　and　more
  loving　than　Almighty　God；　who　certainly　does　not　do　everything　for
  the　sons　of　men；　but　forces　them　to　labour　for　themselves　by　bitter
  need；　and　after　a　most　Spartan　mode　of　education；　who　allows　them　to
  burn　their　hands　as　often　as　they　are　foolish　enough　to　put　them
  into　the　fire；　and　to　be　filled　with　the　fruits　of　their　own　folly；
  even　though　the　folly　be　one　of　necessary　ignorance；　treating　them
  with　that　seeming　neglect　which　is　after　all　the　most　provident
  care；　because　by　it　alone　can　men　be　trained　to　experience；　self…
  help；　science；　true　humanity；　and　so　become　not　tolerably　harmless
  dolls；　but　men　and　women　worthy　of　the　name；　with
  The　reason　firm；　the　temperate　will；
  Endurance；　foresight；　strength；　and　skill；
  The　perfect　spirit；　nobly　planned
  To　cheer；　to　counsel；　and　command。
  Such　seems　to　be　the　education　and　government　appointed　for　man　by
  the　voluntatem　Dei　in　rebus　revelatum；　and　the　education；　therefore；
  which　the　man　of　science　will　accept　and　carry　out。　　But　the　men　of
  the　Ancien　Regimein　as　far　as　it　was　a　Regime　at　alltried　to　be
  wiser　than　the　Almighty。　　Why　not？　　They　were　not　the　first；　nor
  will　be　the　last；　by　many　who　have　made　the　same　attempt。　　So　this
  Council　of　State　settled　arbitrarily；　not　only　taxes；　and　militia；
  and　roads；　but　anything　and　everything。　　Its　members　meddled；　with
  their　whole　hearts　and　minds。　　They　tried　to　teach　agriculture　by
  schools　and　pamphlets　and　prizes；　they　sent　out　plans　for　every
  public　work。　　A　town　could　not　establish　an　octroi；　levy　a　rate；
  mortgage；　sell；　sue；　farm；　or　administer　their　property；　without　an
  order　in　council。　　The　Government　ordered　public　rejoicings；　saw　to
  the　firing　of　salutes；　and　illuminating　of　housesin　one　case
  mentioned　by　M。　de　Tocqueville；　they　fined　a　member　of　the　burgher
  guard　for　absenting　himself　from　a　Te　Deum。　　All　self…government　was
  gone。　　A　country　parish　was；　says　Turgot；　nothing　but　〃an　assemblage
  of　cabins；　and　of　inhabitants　as　passive　as　the　cabins　they　dwelt
  in。〃　　Without　an　order　of　council；　the　parish　could　not　mend　the
  steeple　after　a　storm；　or　repair　the　parsonage　gable。　　If　they
  grumbled　at　the　intendant；　he　threw　some　of　the　chief　persons　into
  prison；　and　made　the　parish　pay　the　expenses　of　the　horse　patrol；
  which　formed　the　arbitrary　police　of　France。　　Everywhere　was
  meddling。　　There　were　reports　on　statisticscircumstantial；
  inaccurate；　and　uselessas　statistics　are　too　often　wont　to　be。
  Sometimes；　when　the　people　were　starving；　the　Government　sent　down
  charitable　donations　to　certain　parishes；　on　condition　that　the
  inhabitants　should　raise　a　sum　on　their　part。　　When　the　sum　offered
  was　sufficient；　the　Comptroller…General　wrote　on　the　margin；　when　he
  returned　the　report　to　the　intendant；　〃Goodexpress　satisfaction。〃
  If　it　was　more　than　sufficient；　he　wrote；　〃Goodexpress
  satisfaction　and　sensibility。〃　　There　is　nothing　new　under　the　sun。
  In　1761；　the　Government；　jealous　enough　of　newspapers；　determined　to
  start　one　for　itself；　and　for　that　purpose　took　under　its　tutelage
  the　Gazette　de　France。　　So　the　public　newsmongers　were　of　course　to
  be　the　provincial　intendants；　and　their　sub…newsmongers；　of　course；
  the　sub…delegates。
  But　alas！　the　poor　sub…delegates　seem　to　have　found　either　very
  little　news；　or　very　little　which　it　was　politic　to　publish。　　One
  reports　that　a　smuggler　of　salt　has　been　hung；　and