to　force　Great　Britain　in　particular；　but　other　foreign　countries　as　well；　to　make　such　trade　agreements　as　the　prosperity　of　the　United　States　demanded。　The　only　hope　seemed　to　lie　in　a　commercial　policy　of　reprisal　which　would　force　other　countries　to　open　their　markets　to　American　goods。　Retaliation　was　the　dominating　idea　in　the　foreign　policy　of　the　time。　So　in　1784　Congress　made　a　new　recommendation　to　the　States；　prefacing　it　with　an　assertion　of　the　importance　of　commerce；　saying：　〃The　fortune　of　every　Citizen　is　interested　in　the　success　thereof；　for　it　is　the　constant　source　of　wealth　and　incentive　to　industry；　and　the　value　of　our　produce　and　our　land　must　ever　rise　or　fall　in　proportion　to　the　prosperous　or　adverse　state　of　trade。〃　And　after　declaring　that　Great　Britain　had　〃adopted　regulations　destructive　of　our　commerce　with　her　West　India　Islands；〃　it　was　further　asserted：　〃Unless　the　United　States　in　Congress　assembled　shall　be　vested　with　powers　competent　to　the　protection　of　commerce；　they　can　never　command　reciprocal　advantages　in　trade。〃　It　was　therefore　proposed　to　give　to　Congress　for　fifteen　years　the　power　to　prohibit　the　importation　or　exportation　of　goods　at　American　ports　except　in　vessels　owned　by　the　people　of　the　United　States　or　by　the　subjects　of　foreign　governments　having　treaties　of　commerce　with　the　United　States。　This　was　simply　a　request　for　authorization　to　adopt　navigation　acts。　But　the　individual　States　were　too　much　concerned　with　their　own　interests　and　did　not　or　would　not　appreciate　the　rights　of　the　other　States　or　the　interests　of　the　Union　as　a　whole。　And　so　the　commercial　amendment　of　1784　suffered　the　fate　of　all　other　amendments　proposed　to　the　Articles　of　Confederation。　In　fact　only　two　States　accepted　it。　It　usually　happens　that　some　minor　occurrence；　almost　unnoticed　at　the　time；　leads　directly　to　the　most　important　consequences。　And　an　incident　in　domestic　affairs　started　the　chain　of　events　in　the　United　States　that　ended　in　the　reform　of　the　Federal　Government。　The　rivalry　and　jealousy　among　the　States　had　brought　matters　to　such　a　pass　that　either　Congress　must　be　vested　with　adequate　powers　or　the　Confederation　must　collapse。　But　the　Articles　of　Confederation　provided　no　remedy；　and　it　had　been　found　that　amendments　to　that　instrument　could　not　be　obtained。　It　was　necessary；　therefore；　to　proceed　in　some　extra…legal　fashion。　The　Articles　of　Confederation　specifically　forbade　treaties　or　alliances　between　the　States　unless　approved　by　Congress。　Yet　Virginia　and　Maryland；　in　1785；　had　come　to　a　working　agreement　regarding　the　use　of　the　Potomac　River；　which　was　the　boundary　line　between　them。　Commissioners　representing　both　parties　had　met　at　Alexandria　and　soon　adjourned　to　Mount　Vernon；　where　they　not　only　reached　an　amicable　settlement　of　the　immediate　questions　before　them　but　also　discussed　the　larger　subjects　of　duties　and　commercial　matters　in　general。　When　the　Maryland　legislature　came　to　act　on　the　report；　it　proposed　that　Pennsylvania　and　Delaware　should　be　invited　to　join　with　them　in　formulating　a　common　commercial　policy。　Virginia　then　went　one　step　farther　and　invited　all　the　other　States　to　send　commissioners　to　a　general　trade　convention　and　later　announced　Annapolis　as　the　place　of　meeting　and　set　the　time　for　September；　1786。　This　action　was　unconstitutional　and　was　so　recognized；　for　James　Madison　notes　that　〃from　the　Legislative　Journals　of　Virginia　it　appears；　that　a　vote　to　apply　for　a　sanction　of　Congress　was　followed　by　a　vote　against　a　communication　of　the　Compact　to　Congress；〃　and　he　mentions　other　similar　violations　of　the　central　authority。　That　this　did　not　attract　more　attention　was　probably　due　to　the　public　interest　being　absorbed　just　at　that　time　by　the　paper　money　agitation。　Then；　too；　the　men　concerned　seem　to　have　been　willing　to　avoid　publicity。　Their　purposes　are　well　brought　out　in　a　letter　of　Monsieur　Louis　Otto；　French　Charge　d'Affaires；　written　on　October　10；　1786；　to　the　Comte　de　Vergennes；　Minister　for　Foreign　Affairs；　though　their　motives　may　be　somewhat　misinterpreted。　〃Although　there　are　no　nobles　in　America；　there　is　a　class　of　men　denominated　〃gentlemen；〃　who；　by　reason　of　their　wealth；　their　talents；　their　education；　their　families；　or　the　offices　they　hold；　aspire　to　a　preeminence　which　the　people　refuse　to　grant　them；　and；　although　many　of　these　men　have　betrayed　the　interests　of　their　order　to　gain　popularity；　there　reigns　among　them　a　connection　so　much　the　more　intimate　as　they　almost　all　of　them　dread　the　efforts　of　the　people　to　despoil　them　of　their　possessions；　and；　moreover；　they　are　creditors；　and　therefore　interested　in　strengthening　the　government；　and　watching　over　the　execution　of　the　laws。　〃These　men　generally　pay　very　heavy　taxes；　while　the　small　proprietors　escape　the　vigilance　of　the　collectors。　The　majority　of　them　being　merchants；　it　is　for　their　interest　to　establish　the　credit　of　the　United　States　in　Europe　on　a　solid　foundation　by　the　exact　payment　of　debts；　and　to　grant　to　congress　powers　extensive　enough　to　compel　the　people　to　contribute　for　this　purpose。　The　attempt；　my　lord；　has　been　vain；　by　pamphlets　and　other　publications；　to　spread　notions　of　justice　and　integrity；　and　to　deprive　the　people　of　a　freedom　which　they　have　so　misused。　By　proposing　a　new　organization　of　the　federal　government　all　minds　would　have　been　revolted；　circumstances　ruinous　to　the　commerce　of　America　have　happily　arisen　to　furnish　the　reformers　with　a　pretext　for　introducing　innovations。　〃They　represented　to　the　people　that　the　American　name　had　become　opprobrious　among　all　the　nations　of　Europe；　that　the　flag　of　the　United　States　was　everywhere　exposed　to　insults　and　annoyance；　the　husbandman；　no　longer　able　to　export　his　produce　freely；　would　soon　be　reduced　to　want；　it　was　high　time　to　retaliate；　and　to　convince　foreign　powers　that　the　United　States　would　not　with　impunity　suffer　such　a　violation　of　the　freedom　of　trade；　but　that　strong　measures　could　be　taken　only　with　the　consent　of　the　thirteen　states；　and　that　congress；　not　having　the　necessary　powers；　it　was　essential　to　form　a　general　assembly　instructed　to　present　to　congress　the　plan　for　its　adoption；　and　to　point　out　the　means　of　carrying　it　into　execution。　〃The　people；　generally　discontented　with　the　obstacles　in　the　way　of　commerce；　and　scarcely　suspecting　the　secret　motives　of　their　opponents；　ardently　embraced　this　measure；　and　appointed　commissioners；　who　were　to　assemble　at　Annapolis　in　the　beginning　of　September。　〃The　authors　of　this　proposition　had　no　hope；　nor　even　desire；　to　see　the　success　of　this　assembly　of　commissioners；　which　was　only　intended　to　prepare　a　question　much　more　important　than　that　of　commerce。　The　measures　were　so　well　taken　that　at　the　end　of　September　no　more　than　five　states　were　represented　at　Annapolis；　and　the　commissioners　from　the　northern　states　tarried　several　days　at　New　York　in　order　to　retard　their　arrival。　〃The　states　which　assembled；　after　having　waited　nearly　three　weeks；　separated　under　the　pretext　that　they　were　not　in　sufficient　numbers　to　enter　on　business；　and；　to　justify　this　dissolution；　they　addressed　to　the　different　legislatures　and　to　congress　a　report；　the　translation　of　which　I　have　the　honor　to　enclose　to　you。〃*　*　Quoted　by　Bancroft；　〃History　of　the　Formation　of　the　Constitution；〃　vol。　ii；　Appendix；　pp。　399…400。
  Among　these　〃men　denominated　'gentlemen'〃　to　whom　the　French　Charge　d'Affaires　alludes；　was　James　Madison　of　Virginia。　He　was　one　of　the　younger　men；　unfitted　by　temperament　and　physique　to　be　a　soldier；　who　yet　had　found　his　opportunity　in　the　Revolution。　Graduating　in　1771　from　Princeton；　where　tradition　tells　of　the　part　he　took　in　patriotic　demonstrations　on　the　campus　…characteristic　of　students　then　as　nowhe　had　thrown　himself　heart　and　soul　into　the　American　cause。　He　was　a　member　of　the　convention　to　frame　the　first　State　Constitution　for　Virginia　in　1776；　and　from　that　time　on；　because　of　his　ability；　he　was　an　important　figure　in　the　political　history　of　his　State　and　of　his　country。　He　was　largely　responsible　for　bringing　about　the　conference　between　Virginia　and　Maryland　and　for　the　subsequent　steps　resulting　in　the　trade　convention　at　Annapolis。　And　yet　Madison　seldom　took　a　conspicuous　part；　preferring　to　remain　in　the　background　and　to　allow　others　to　appear　as　the　leaders。　When　the　Annapolis　Convention　assembled；　for　example；　he　suffered　Alexander　Hamilton　of　New　York　to　play　the　leading　role。　Hamilton　was　then　approaching　thirty　years　of　age　and　was　one　of　the　ablest　men　in　the　United　States。　Though　his　best　work　was　done　in　later　years；　when　he　proved　himself　to　be　perhaps　the　most　brilliant　of　American　statesmen；　with　an　extraordinary　genius　for　administrative　organization；　the　part　that　he　took　in　the　affairs　of　this　period　was　important。　He　was　small　and　slight　in　person　but　with　an　expressive　face；　fair　complexion；　and　cheeks　of　〃almost　feminine　rosiness。〃　The　usual　aspect　of　his　countenance　was　thoughtful　and　even　severe；　but　in　conversation　his　face　lighted　up　with　a　remarkably　attractive　smile。　He　carried　himself　erectly　and　with　dignity；　so　that　in　spite　of　his　small　figure；