the　people　of　the　various　States　were　showing　a　disposition　to　follow　readily　suggestions　that　came　from　those　whom　they　could　trust　and　when　they　seemed　to　be　willing　to　submit　without　compulsion　to　orders　from　the　same　source。　These　circumstances；　quite　as　much　as　the　inexperience　of　Congress　and　the　jealousy　of　the　States；　account　for　the　inefficient　form　of　government　which　was　devised；　and　inefficient　the　Confederation　certainly　was。　The　only　organ　of　government　was　a　Congress　in　which　every　State　was　entitled　to　one　vote　and　was　represented　by　a　delegation　whose　members　were　appointed　annually　as　the　legislature　of　the　State　might　direct；　whose　expenses　were　paid　by　the　State；　and　who　were　subject　to　recall。　In　other　words；　it　was　a　council　of　States　whose　representatives　had　little　incentive　to　independence　of　action。　Extensive　powers　were　granted　to　this　Congress　〃of　determining　on　peace　and　war；　。　。　。　of　entering　into　treaties　and　alliances；〃　of　maintaining　an　army　and　a　navy；　of　establishing　post　offices；　of　coining　money；　and　of　making　requisitions　upon　the　States　for　their　respective　share　of　expenses　〃incurred　for　the　common　defence　or　general　welfare。〃　But　none　of　these　powers　could　be　exercised　without　the　consent　of　nine　States；　which　was　equivalent　to　requiring　a　two…thirds　vote；　and　even　when　such　a　vote　had　been　obtained　and　a　decision　had　been　reached；　there　was　nothing　to　compel　the　individual　States　to　obey　beyond　the　mere　declaration　in　the　Articles　of　Confederation　that；　〃Every　State　shall　abide　by　the　determinations　of　the　United　States　in　Congress　assembled。〃　No　executive　was　provided　for　except　that　Congress　was　authorized　〃to　appoint　such　other　committees　and　civil　officers　as　may　be　necessary　for　managing　the　general　affairs　of　the　United　States　under　their　direction。〃　In　judicial　matters；　Congress　was　to　serve　as　〃the　last　resort　on　appeal　in　all　disputes　and　differences〃　between　States；　and　Congress　might　establish　courts　for　the　trial　of　piracy　and　felonies　committed　on　the　high　seas　and　for　determining　appeals　in　cases　of　prize　capture。　The　plan　of　a　government　was　there　but　it　lacked　any　driving　force。　Congress　might　declare　war　but　the　States　might　decline　to　participate　in　it；　Congress　might　enter　into　treaties　but　it　could　not　make　the　States　live　up　to　them；　Congress　might　borrow　money　but　it　could　not　be　sure　of　repaying　it；　and　Congress　might　decide　disputes　without　being　able　to　make　the　parties　accept　the　decision。　The　pressure　of　necessity　might　keep　the　States　together　for　a　time；　yet　there　is　no　disguising　the　fact　that　the　Articles　of　Confederation　formed　nothing　more　than　a　gentlemen's　agreement。
  CHAPTER　IV。　THE　NORTHWEST　ORDINANCE　The　population　of　the　United　States　was　like　a　body　of　water　that　was　being　steadily　enlarged　by　internal　springs　and　external　tributaries。　It　was　augmented　both　from　within　and　from　without；　from　natural　increase　and　from　immigration。　It　had　spread　over　the　whole　coast　from　Maine　to　Georgia　and　slowly　back　into　the　interior；　at　first　along　the　lines　of　river　communication　and　then　gradually　filling　up　the　spaces　between　until　the　larger　part　of　the　available　land　east　of　the　Alleghany　Mountains　was　settled。　There　the　stream　was　checked　as　if　dammed　by　the　mountain　barrier；　but　the　population　was　trickling　through　wherever　it　could　find　an　opening；　slowly　wearing　channels；　until　finally；　when　the　obstacles　were　overcome；　it　broke　through　with　a　rush。　Twenty　years　before　the　Revolution　the　expanding　population　had　reached　the　mountains　and　was　ready　to　go　beyond。　The　difficulty　of　crossing　the　mountains　was　not　insuperable；　but　the　French　and　Indian　War；　followed　by　Pontiac's　Conspiracy；　made　outlying　frontier　settlement　dangerous　if　not　impossible。　The　arbitrary　restriction　of　western　settlement　by　the　Proclamation　of　1763　did　not　stop　the　more　adventurous　but　did　hold　back　the　mass　of　the　population　until　near　the　time　of　the　Revolution；　when　a　few　bands　of　settlers　moved　into　Kentucky　and　Tennessee　and　rendered　important　but　inconspicuous　service　in　the　fighting。　But　so　long　as　the　title　to　that　territory　was　in　doubt　no　considerable　body　of　people　would　move　into　it；　and　it　was　not　until　the　Treaty　of　Peace　in　1783　determined　that　the　western　country　as　far　as　the　Mississippi　River　was　to　belong　to　the　United　States　that　the　dammed…up　population　broke　over　the　mountains　in　a　veritable　flood。　The　western　country　and　its　people　presented　no　easy　problem　to　the　United　States：　how　to　hold　those　people　when　the　pull　was　strong　to　draw　them　from　the　Union；　how　to　govern　citizens　so　widely　separated　from　the　older　communities；　and；　of　most　immediate　importance；　how　to　hold　the　land　itself。　It　was；　indeed；　the　question　of　the　ownership　of　the　land　beyond　the　mountains　which　delayed　the　ratification　of　the　Articles　of　Confederation。　Some　of　the　States；　by　right　of　their　colonial　charter　grants　〃from　sea　to　sea；〃　were　claiming　large　parts　of　the　western　region。　Other　States；　whose　boundaries　were　fixed；　could　put　forward　no　such　claims；　and；　as　they　were　therefore　limited　in　their　area　of　expansion；　they　were　fearful　lest　in　the　future　they　should　be　overbalanced　by　those　States　which　might　obtain　extensive　property　in　the　West。　It　was　maintained　that　the　Proclamation　of　1763　had　changed　this　western　territory　into　〃Crown　lands；〃　and　as；　by　the　Treaty　of　Peace；　the　title　had　passed　to　the　United　States；　the　non…claimant　States　had　demanded　in　self…defense　that　the　western　land　should　belong　to　the　country　as　a　whole　and　not　to　the　individual　States。　Rhode　Island；　Maryland；　and　Delaware　were　most　seriously　affected；　and　they　were　insistent　upon　this　point。　Rhode　Island　and　at　length　Delaware　gave　in；　so　that　by　February；　1779；　Maryland　alone　held　out。　In　May　of　that　year　the　instructions　of　Maryland　to　her　delegates　were　read　in　Congress；　positively　forbidding　them　to　ratify　the　plan　of　union　unless　they　should　receive　definite　assurances　that　the　western　country　would　become　the　common　property　of　the　United　States。　As　the　consent　of　all　of　the　Thirteen　States　was　necessary　to　the　establishment　of　the　Confederation；　this　refusal　of　Maryland　brought　matters　to　a　crisis。　The　question　was　eagerly　discussed；　and　early　in　1780　the　deadlock　was　broken　by　the　action　of　New　York　in　authorizing　her　representatives　to　cede　her　entire　claim　in　western　lands　to　the　United　States。　It　matters　little　that　the　claim　of　New　York　was　not　as　good　as　that　of　some　of　the　other　States；　especially　that　of　Virginia。　The　whole　situation　was　changed。　It　was　no　longer　necessary　for　Maryland　to　defend　her　position；　but　the　claimant　States　were　compelled　to　justify　themselves　before　the　country　for　not　following　New　York's　example。　Congress　wisely　refrained　from　any　assertion　of　jurisdiction；　and　only　urgently　recommended　that　States　having　claims　to　western　lands　should　cede　them　in　order　that　the　one　obstacle　to　the　final　ratification　of　the　Articles　of　Confederation　might　be　removed。　Without　much　question　Virginia's　claim　was　the　strongest；　but　the　pressure　was　too　great　even　for　her；　and　she　finally　yielded；　ceding　to　the　United　States；　upon　certain　conditions；　all　her　lands　northwest　of　the　Ohio　River。　Then　the　Maryland　delegates　were　empowered　to　ratify　the　Articles　of　Confederation。　This　was　early　in　1781；　and　in　a　very　short　time　the　other　States　had　followed　the　example　of　New　York　and　Virginia。　Certain　of　the　conditions　imposed　by　Virginia　were　not　acceptable　to　Congress；　and　three　years　later；　upon　specific　request；　that　State　withdrew　the　objectionable　conditions　and　made　the　cession　absolute。　The　territory　thus　ceded；　north　and　west　of　the　Ohio　River；　constituted　the　public　domain。　Its　boundaries　were　somewhat　indefinite；　but　subsequent　surveys　confirmed　the　rough　estimate　that　it　contained　from　one　to　two　hundred　millions　of　acres。　It　was　supposed　to　be　worth；　on　the　average；　about　a　dollar　an　acre；　which　would　make　this　property　an　asset　sufficient　to　meet　the　debts　of　the　war　and　to　leave　a　balance　for　the　running　expenses　of　the　Government。　It　thereby　became　one　of　the　strong　bonds　holding　the　Union　together。　〃Land！〃　was　the　first　cry　of　the　storm…tossed　mariners　of　Columbus。　For　three　centuries　the　leading　fact　of　American　history　has　been　that　soon　after　1600　a　body　of　Europeans；　mostly　Englishmen；　settled　on　the　edge　of　the　greatest　piece　of　unoccupied　agricultural　land　in　the　temperate　zone；　and　proceeded　to　subdue　it　to　the　uses　of　man。　For　three　centuries　the　chief　task　of　American　mankind　has　been　to　go　up　westward　against　the　land　and　to　possess　it。　Our　wars；　our　independence；　our　state　building；　our　political　democracy；　our　plasticity　with　respect　to　immigration；　our　mobility　of　thought；　our　ardor　of　initiative；　our　mildness　and　our　prosperity；　all　are　but　incidents　or　products　of　this　prime　historical　fact。*　*　Lecture　by　J。　Franklin　Jameson　before　the　Trustees　of　the　Carnegie　Institution；　at　Washington；　in　1912；　printed　in　the　〃History　Teacher's　Magazine；〃　vol。　IV；　1913；　p。　5。
  It　is　seldom　that　one's　attention　is　so　caught　and　held　as　by　the　happy　suggestion　that　American　interest　in　land　or　rather　interest　in　American　landbegan　with　the　discovery　of　the　continent。　E