nifesting　itself　in　the　conflict　between　the　Governors；　and　other　appointed　agents　of　the　Crown；　and　the　popularly　elected　houses　of　the　colonial　legislatures。　When　the　Crown　resorted　to　dissolving　the　legislatures；　the　revolting　colonists　kept　up　and　observed　the　forms　of　government。　When　the　legislature　was　prevented　from　meeting；　the　members　would　come　together　and　call　themselves　a　congress　or　a　convention；　and；　instead　of　adopting　laws　or　orders；　would　issue　what　were　really　nothing　more　than　recommendations；　but　which　they　expected　would　be　obeyed　by　their　supporters。　To　enforce　these　recommendations　extra…legal　committees；　generally　backed　by　public　opinion　and　sometimes　concretely　supported　by　an　organized　〃mob；〃　would　meet　in　towns　and　counties　and　would　be　often　effectively　centralized　where　the　opponents　of　the　British　policy　were　in　control。　In　several　of　the　colonies　the　want　of　orderly　government　became　so　serious　that；　in　1775；　the　Continental　Congress　advised　them　to　form　temporary　governments　until　the　trouble　with　Great　Britain　had　been　settled。　When　independence　was　declared　Congress　recommended　to　all　the　States　that　they　should　adopt　governments　of　their　own。　In　accordance　with　that　recommendation；　in　the　course　of　a　very　few　years　each　State　established　an　independent　government　and　adopted　a　written　constitution。　It　was　a　time　when　men　believed　in　the　social　contract　or　the　〃compact　theory　of　the　state；〃　that　states　originated　through　agreement；　as　the　case　might　be；　between　king　and　nobles；　between　king　and　people；　or　among　the　people　themselves。　In　support　of　this　doctrine　no　less　an　authority　than　the　Bible　was　often　quoted；　such　a　passage　for　example　as　II　Samuel　v；　3：　〃So　all　the　elders　of　Israel　came　to　the　King　to　Hebron；　and　King　David　made　a　covenant　with　them　in　Hebron　before　the　Lord；　and　they　anointed　David　King　over　Israel。〃　As　a　philosophical　speculation　to　explain　why　people　were　governed　or　consented　to　be　governed；　this　theory　went　back　at　least　to　the　Greeks；　and　doubtless　much　earlier；　and；　though　of　some　significance　in　medieval　thought；　it　became　of　greater　importance　in　British　political　philosophy；　especially　through　the　works　of　Thomas　Hobbes　and　John　Locke。　A　very　practical　application　of　the　compact　theory　was　made　in　the　English　Revolution　of　1688；　when　in　order　to　avoid　the　embarrassment　of　deposing　the　king；　the　convention　of　the　Parliament　adopted　the　resolution：　〃That　King　James　the　Second；　having　endeavored　to　subvert　the　Constitution　of　the　Kingdom；　by　breaking　the　original　Contract　between　King　and　People；　and　having；　by　the　advice　of　Jesuits；　and　other　wicked　persons；　violated　the　fundamental　Laws；　and　withdrawn　himself　out　of　this　Kingdom；　has　abdicated　the　Government；　and　that　the　throne　is　hereby　vacant。〃　These　theories　were　developed　by　Jean　Jacques　Rousseau　in　his　〃Contrat　Social〃a　book　so　attractively　written　that　it　eclipsed　all　other　works　upon　the　subject　and　resulted　in　his　being　regarded　as　the　author　of　the　doctrineand　through　him　they　spread　all　over　Europe。　Conditions　in　America　did　more　than　lend　color　to　pale　speculation；　they　seemed　to　take　this　hypothesis　out　of　the　realm　of　theory　and　to　give　it　practical　application。　What　happened　when　men　went　into　the　wilderness　to　live？　The　Pilgrim　Fathers　on　board　the　Mayflower　entered　into　an　agreement　which　was　signed　by　the　heads　of　families　who　took　part　in　the　enterprise：　〃We；　whose　names　are　underwritten　。　。　。　Do　by　these　presents；　solemnly　and　mutually；　in　the　Presence　of　God　and　one　another；　covenant　and　combine　ourselves　together　into　a　civil　Body　Politick。〃　Other　colonies；　especially　in　New　England；　with　this　example　before　them　of　a　social　contract　entered　into　similar　compacts　or　〃plantation　covenants；〃　as　they　were　called。　But　the　colonists　were　also　accustomed　to　having　written　charters　granted　which　continued　for　a　time　at　least　to　mark　the　extent　of　governmental　powers。　Through　this　intermingling　of　theory　and　practice　it　was　the　most　natural　thing　in　the　world；　when　Americans　came　to　form　their　new　State　Governments；　that　they　should　provide　written　instruments　framed　by　their　own　representatives；　which　not　only　bound　them　to　be　governed　in　this　way　but　also　placed　limitations　upon　the　governing　bodies。　As　the　first　great　series　of　written　constitutions；　these　frames　of　government　attracted　wide　attention。　Congress　printed　a　set　for　general　distribution；　and　numerous　editions　were　circulated　both　at　home　and　abroad。　The　constitutions　were　brief　documents；　varying　from　one　thousand　to　twelve　thousand　words　in　length；　which　established　the　framework　of　the　governmental　machinery。　Most　of　them；　before　proceeding　to　practical　working　details；　enunciated　a　series　of　general　principles　upon　the　subject　of　government　and　political　morality　in　what　were　called　declarations　or　bills　of　rights。　The　character　of　these　declarations　may　be　gathered　from　the　following　excerpts：　〃That　all　men　are　by　nature　equally　free　and　independent；　and　have　certain　inherent　rights；　。　。　。　the　enjoyment　of　life　and　liberty；　with　the　means　of　acquiring　and　possessing　property；　and　pursuing　and　obtaining　happiness　and　safety。　〃That　no　man；　or　set　of　men；　are　entitled　to　exclusive　or　separate　emoluments　or　privileges　from　the　community；　but　in　consideration　of　public　services。　〃The　body　politic　is　formed　by　a　voluntary　association　of　individuals；　it　is　a　social　compact　by　which　the　whole　people　covenants　with　each　citizen　and　each　citizen　with　the　whole　people　that　all　shall　be　governed　by　certain　laws　for　the　common　good。　〃That　all　power　of　suspending　laws；　or　the　execution　of　laws；　by　any　authority；　without　consent　of　the　representatives　of　the　people；　is　injurious　to　their　rights；　and　ought　not　to　be　exercised。　〃That　general　warrants；　。　。　。　are　grievous　and　oppressive；　and　ought　not　to　be　granted。　〃All　penalties　ought　to　be　proportioned　to　the　nature　of　the　offence。　〃That　sanguinary　laws　ought　to　be　avoided；　as　far　as　is　consistent　with　the　safety　of　the　State；　and　no　law；　to　inflict　cruel　and　unusual　pains　and　penalties；　ought　to　be　made　in　any　case；　or　at　any　time　hereafter。　〃No　magistrate　or　court　of　law　shall　demand　excessive　bail　or　sureties；　impose　excessive　fines　。　。　。　。　〃Every　individual　has　a　natural　and　unalienable　right　to　worship　God　according　to　the　dictates　of　his　own　conscience；　and　reason；　。　。　。　〃That　the　freedom　of　the　press　is　one　of　the　great　bulwarks　of　liberty；　and　can　never　be　restrained　but　by　despotic　governments。〃　It　will　be　perceived　at　once　that　these　are　but　variations　of　the　English　Declaration　of　Rights　of　1689；　which　indeed　was　consciously　followed　as　a　model；　and　yet　there　is　a　world…wide　difference　between　the　English　model　and　these　American　copies。　The　earlier　document　enunciated　the　rights　of　English　subjects；　the　recent　infringement　of　which　made　it　desirable　that　they　should　be　reasserted　in　convincing　form。　The　American　documents　asserted　rights　which　the　colonists　generally　had　enjoyed　and　which　they　declared　to　be　〃governing　principles　for　all　peoples　in　all　future　times。〃　But　the　greater　significance　of　these　State　Constitutions　is　to　be　found　in　their　quality　as　working　instruments　of　government。　There　was　indeed　little　difference　between　the　old　colonial　and　the　new　State　Governments。　The　inhabitants　of　each　of　the　Thirteen　States　had　been　accustomed　to　a　large　measure　of　self…government；　and　when　they　took　matters　into　their　own　hands　they　were　not　disposed　to　make　any　radical　changes　in　the　forms　to　which　they　had　become　accustomed。　Accordingly　the　State　Governments　that　were　adopted　simply　continued　a　framework　of　government　almost　identical　with　that　of　colonial　times。　To　be　sure；　the　Governor　and　other　appointed　officials　were　now　elected　either　by　the　people　or　the　legislature；　and　so　were　ultimately　responsible　to　the　electors　instead　of　to　the　Crown；　and　other　changes　were　made　which　in　the　long　run　might　prove　of　far…reaching　and　even　of　vital　significance；　and　yet　the　machinery　of　government　seemed　the　same　as　that　to　which　the　people　were　already　accustomed。　The　average　man　was　conscious　of　no　difference　at　all　in　the　working　of　the　Government　under　the　new　order。　In　fact；　in　Connecticut　and　Rhode　Island；　the　most　democratic　of　all　the　colonies；　where　the　people　had　been　privileged　to　elect　their　own　governors；　as　well　as　legislatures；　no　change　whatever　was　necessary　and　the　old　charters　were　continued　as　State　Constitutions　down　to　1818　and　1842；　respectively。　To　one　who　has　been　accustomed　to　believe　that　the　separation　from　a　monarchical　government　meant　the　establishment　of　democracy；　a　reading　of　these　first　State　Constitutions　is　likely　to　cause　a　rude　shock。　A　shrewd　English　observer；　traveling　a　generation　later　in　the　United　States；　went　to　the　root　of　the　whole　matter　in　remarking　of　the　Americans　that；　〃When　their　independence　was　achieved　their　mental　condition　was　not　instantly　changed。　Their　deference　for　rank　and　for　judicial　and　legislative　authority　continued　nearly　unimpaired。〃*　They　might　declare　that　〃all　men　are　created　equal；〃　and　bills　of　rights　might　assert　that　government　rested　upon　the　consent　of　the　governed；　but　these　constitutions　carefully　provided　tha