The　Fathers　of　the　Constitution
  A　Chronicle　of　the　Establishment　of　the　Union
  By　Max　Farrand
  CONTENTS
  I。　THE　TREATY　OF　PEACE
  II。　TRADE　AND　INDUSTRY
  III。　THE　CONFEDERATION
  IV。　THE　NORTHWEST　ORDINANCE
  V。　DARKNESS　BEFORE　DAWN
  VI。　THE　FEDERAL　CONVENTION
  VII。　FINISHING　THE　WORK
  VIII。　THE　UNION　ESTABLISHED
  APPENDIX
  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL　NOTE
  NOTES　ON　THE　PORTRAITS　OF　THE　MEMBERS　OF　THE　FEDERAL　CONVENTION
  FATHERS　OF　THE　CONSTITUTION
  CHAPTER　I。　THE　TREATY　OF　PEACE　〃The　United　States　of　America〃！　It　was　in　the　Declaration　of　Independence　that　this　name　was　first　and　formally　proclaimed　to　the　world；　and　to　maintain　its　verity　the　war　of　the　Revolution　was　fought。　Americans　like　to　think　that　they　were　then　assuming　〃among　the　Powers　of　the　Earth　the　equal　and　independent　Station　to　which　the　Laws　of　Nature　and　of　Nature's　God　entitle　them〃；　and；　in　view　of　their　subsequent　marvelous　development；　they　are　inclined　to　add　that　it　must　have　been　before　an　expectant　world。　In　these　days　of　prosperity　and　national　greatness　it　is　hard　to　realize　that　the　achievement　of　independence　did　not　place　the　United　States　on　a　footing　of　equality　with　other　countries　and　that；　in　fact；　the　new　state　was　more　or　less　an　unwelcome　member　of　the　world　family。　It　is　nevertheless　true　that　the　latest　comer　into　the　family　of　nations　did　not　for　a　long　time　command　the　respect　of　the　world。　This　lack　of　respect　was　partly　due　to　the　character　of　the　American　population。　Along　with　the　many　estimable　and　excellent　people　who　had　come　to　British　North　America　inspired　by　the　best　of　motives；　there　had　come　others　who　were　not　regarded　favorably　by　the　governing　classes　of　Europe。　Discontent　is　frequently　a　healthful　sign　and　a　forerunner　of　progress；　but　it　makes　one　an　uncomfortable　neighbor　in　a　satisfied　and　conservative　community；　and　discontent　was　the　underlying　factor　in　the　migration　from　the　Old　World　to　the　New。　In　any　composite　immigrant　population　such　as　that　of　the　United　States　there　was　bound　to　be　a　large　element　of　undesirables。　Among　those　who　came　〃for　conscience's　sake〃　were　the　best　type　of　religious　protestants；　but　there　were　also　religious　cranks　from　many　countries；　of　almost　every　conceivable　sect　and　of　no　sect　at　all。　Many　of　the　newcomers　were　poor。　It　was　common；　too；　to　regard　colonies　as　inferior　places　of　residence　to　which　objectionable　persons　might　be　encouraged　to　go　and　where　the　average　of　the　population　was　lowered　by　the　influx　of　convicts　and　thousands　of　slaves。　〃The　great　number　of　emigrants　from　Europe〃wrote　Thieriot；　Saxon　Commissioner　of　Commerce　to　America；　from　Philadelphia　in　1784〃has　filled　this　place　with　worthless　persons　to　such　a　degree　that　scarcely　a　day　passes　without　theft；　robbery；　or　even　assassination。〃*　It　would　perhaps　be　too　much　to　say　that　the　people　of　the　United　States　were　looked　upon　by　the　rest　of　the　world　as　only　half　civilized；　but　certainly　they　were　regarded　as　of　lower　social　standing　and　of　inferior　quality；　and　many　of　them　were　known　to　be　rough；　uncultured；　and　ignorant。　Great　Britain　and　Germany　maintained　American　missionary　societies；　not；　as　might　perhaps　be　expected；　for　the　benefit　of　the　Indian　or　negro；　but　for　the　poor；　benighted　colonists　themselves；　and　Great　Britain　refused　to　commission　a　minister　to　her　former　colonies　for　nearly　ten　years　after　their　independence　had　been　recognized。　*　Quoted　by　W。　E。　Lingelbach；　〃History　Teacher's　Magazine；〃　March；　1913。
  It　is　usually　thought　that　the　dregs　of　humiliation　have　been　reached　when　the　rights　of　foreigners　are　not　considered　safe　in　a　particular　country；　so　that　another　state　insists　upon　establishing　therein　its　own　tribunal　for　the　trial　of　its　citizens　or　subjects。　Yet　that　is　what　the　French　insisted　upon　in　the　United　States；　and　they　were　supposed　to　be　especially　friendly。　They　had　had　their　own　experience　in　America。　First　the　native　Indian　had　appealed　to　their　imagination。　Then；　at　an　appropriate　moment；　they　seemed　to　see　in　the　Americans　a　living　embodiment　of　the　philosophical　theories　of　the　time：　they　thought　that　they　had　at　last　found　〃the　natural　man〃　of　Rousseau　and　Voltaire；　they　believed　that　they　saw　the　social　contract　theory　being　worked　out　before　their　very　eyes。　Nevertheless；　in　spite　of　this　interest　in　Americans；　the　French　looked　upon　them　as　an　inferior　people　over　whom　they　would　have　liked　to　exercise　a　sort　of　protectorate。　To　them　the　Americans　seemed　to　lack　a　proper　knowledge　of　the　amenities　of　life。　Commissioner　Thieriot；　describing　the　administration　of　justice　in　the　new　republic；　noticed　that：　〃A　Frenchman；　with　the　prejudices　of　his　country　and　accustomed　to　court　sessions　in　which　the　officers　have　imposing　robes　and　a　uniform　that　makes　it　impossible　to　recognize　them；　smiles　at　seeing　in　the　court　room　men　dressed　in　street　clothes；　simple；　often　quite　common。　He　is　astonished　to　see　the　public　enter　and　leave　the　court　room　freely；　those　who　prefer　even　keeping　their　hats　on。〃　Later　he　adds：　〃It　appears　that　the　court　of　France　wished　to　set　up　a　jurisdiction　of　its　own　on　this　continent　for　all　matters　involving　French　subjects。〃　France　failed　in　this；　but　at　the　very　time　that　peace　was　under　discussion　Congress　authorized　Franklin　to　negotiate　a　consular　convention；　ratified　a　few　years　later；　according　to　which　the　citizens　of　the　United　States　and　the　subjects　of　the　French　King　in　the　country　of　the　other　should　be　tried　by　their　respective　consuls　or　vice…consuls。　Though　this　agreement　was　made　reciprocal　in　its　terms　and　so　saved　appearances　for　the　honor　of　the　new　nation；　nevertheless　in　submitting　it　to　Congress　John　Jay　clearly　pointed　out　that　it　was　reciprocal　in　name　rather　than　in　substance；　as　there　were　few　or　no　Americans　in　France　but　an　increasing　number　of　Frenchmen　in　the　United　States。　Such　was　the　status　of　the　new　republic　in　the　family　of　nations　when　the　time　approached　for　the　negotiation　of　a　treaty　of　peace　with　the　mother　country。　The　war　really　ended　with　the　surrender　of　Cornwallis　at　Yorktown　in　1781。　Yet　even　then　the　British　were　unwilling　to　concede　the　independence　of　the　revolted　colonies。　This　refusal　of　recognition　was　not　merely　a　matter　of　pride；　a　division　and　a　consequent　weakening　of　the　empire　was　involved；　to　avoid　this　Great　Britain　seems　to　have　been　willing　to　make　any　other　concessions　that　were　necessary。　The　mother　country　sought　to　avoid　disruption　at　all　costs。　But　the　time　had　passed　when　any　such　adjustment　might　have　been　possible。　The　Americans　now　flatly　refused　to　treat　of　peace　upon　any　footing　except　that　of　independent　equality。　The　British；　being　in　no　position　to　continue　the　struggle；　were　obliged　to　yield　and　to　declare　in　the　first　article　of　the　treaty　of　peace　that　〃His　Britannic　Majesty　acknowledges　the　said　United　States　。　。　。　to　be　free；　sovereign；　and　independent　states。〃　With　France　the　relationship　of　the　United　States　was　clear　and　friendly　enough　at　the　time。　The　American　War　of　Independence　had　been　brought　to　a　successful　issue　with　the　aid　of　France。　In　the　treaty　of　alliance　which　had　been　signed　in　1781　had　been　agreed　that　neither　France　nor　the　United　States　should；　without　the　consent　of　the　other；　make　peace　with　Great　Britain。　More　than　that；　in　1781；　partly　out　of　gratitude　but　largely　as　a　result　of　clever　manipulation　of　factions　in　Congress　by　the　French　Minister　in　Philadelphia；　the　Chevalier　de　la　Luzerne；　the　American　peace　commissioners　had　been　instructed　〃to　make　the　most　candid　and　confidential　communications　upon　all　subjects　to　the　ministers　of　our　generous　ally；　the　King　of　France；　to　undertake　nothing　in　the　negotiations　for　peace　or　truce　without　their　knowledge　and　concurrence；　and　ultimately　to　govern　yourselves　by　their　advice　and　opinion。〃*　If　France　had　been　actuated　only　by　unselfish　motives　in　supporting　the　colonies　in　their　revolt　against　Great　Britain；　these　instructions　might　have　been　acceptable　and　even　advisable。　But　such　was　not　the　case。　France　was　working　not　so　much　with　philanthropic　purposes　or　for　sentimental　reasons　as　for　the　restoration　to　her　former　position　of　supremacy　in　Europe。　Revenge　upon　England　was　only　a　part　of　a　larger　plan　of　national　aggrandizement。　*　〃Secret　Journals　of　Congress。〃　June　15；　1781。
  The　treaty　with　France　in　1778　had　declared　that　war　should　be　continued　until　the　independence　of　the　United　States　had　been　established；　and　it　appeared　as　if　that　were　the　main　purpose　of　the　alliance。　For　her　own　good　reasons　France　had　dragged　Spain　into　the　struggle。　Spain；　of　course；　fought　to　cripple　Great　Britain　and　not　to　help　the　United　States。　In　return　for　this　support　France　was　pledged　to　assist　Spain　in　obtaining　certain　additions　to　her　territory。　In　so　far　as　these　additions　related　to　North　America；　the　interests　of　Spain　and　those　of　the　United　States　were　far　from　being　identical；　in　fact；　they　were　frequently　in　direct　opposition。　Spain　was　already　in　possession　of　Louisiana　and；　by　prompt　action　on　her　entry　into　the　war　in　1780；　she　had　succeeded　in　getting　control　of　eastern　Louisiana　and　of　practically　all　the　Floridas　except　St。　Augustine。　To　consolidate　these　holdings　and　round　out　h