manage　the　elections；　and　are　elected　to　office　or　provided　with
  places　by　the　successful　candidates。　　There　is　a　prodigious　number
  of　these　offices　and　places；　not　only　those　of　officers　of　the
  National　Guard　and　the　administrators　of　the　commune；　the　district；
  and　the　department；　whose　duties　are　gratuitous；　or　little　short　of
  it；　but　a　quantity　of　others　which　are　paid；＇33＇　…　eighty…three
  bishops；　seven　hundred　and　fifty　deputies；　four　hundred　criminal
  judges；　three　thousand　and　seven　civil　judges；　five　thousand
  justices　of　the　peace；　twenty　thousand　assessors　forty　thousand
  communal　collectors；　forty…six　thousand　curés；　without　counting　the
  accessory　or　insignificant　places　which　exist　by　tens　and　hundreds
  of　thousands；　from　secretaries；　clerks；　bailiffs　and　notaries；　to
  gendarmes；　constables；　office…clerks；　beadles；　grave…diggers；　and
  keepers　of　sequestered　goods。　　The　pasture　is　vast　for　the
  ambitious；　it　is　not　small　for　the　needy；　and　they　seize　upon　it。
  Such　is　the　rule　in　pure　democracies：　hence　the　swarm　of　politicians
  in　the　United　States。　　When　the　law　incessantly　calls　all　citizens
  to　political　action；　there　are　only　a　few　who　devote　themselves　to
  it；　these　become　expert　in　this　particular　work；　and；　consequently；
  preponderant。　　But　they　must　be　paid　for　their　trouble；　and　the
  election　secures　to　them　their　places　because　they　manage　the
  elections。
  Two　sorts　of　men　furnish　the　recruits　for　this　dominant　minority：　on
  the　one　hand　the　enthusiasts；　and　on　the　other　those　who　have　no
  social　position。　　Towards　the　end　of　1789；　moderate　people；　who　are
  minding　their　own　business；　retire　into　privacy；　and　are　daily　less
  disposed　to　show　themselves。　　The　public　square　is　occupied　by
  others　who；　through　zeal　and　political　passion；　abandon　their
  pursuits；　and　by　those　who；　finding　themselves　hampered　in　their
  social　sphere；　or　repelled　from　ordinary　circles；　were　merely
  awaiting　a　new　opening　to　take　a　fresh　start。　　In　these　utopian　and
  revolutionary　times；　there　is　no　lack　of　either　class。　　Flung　out　by
  handfuls；　the　dogma　of　popular　sovereignty　falls　like　a　seed
  scattered　around；　to　end　up　vegetating　in　heated　brains；　in　the
  narrow　and　rash　minds　which；　once　possessed　by　an　idea；　adhere　to　it
  and　are　mastered　by　it。　　It　falls　amongst　a　class　of　reasoners　who；
  starting　from　a　principle；　dash　forward　like　a　horse　who　has　had
  blinders　put　on。　　This　is　especially　the　case　with　the　legal　class；
  whose　profession　accustoms　them　to　deductions；　nor　less　with　the
  village　attorney；　the　unfrocked　monk；　the　〃intruding〃　and
  excommunicated　curé；　and　above　all；　the　journalist　and　the　local
  orator；　who；　for　the　first　time　in　his　life；　finds　that　he　has　an
  audience；　applause；　influence　and　a　future　before　him。　　These　are
  the　only　people　who　can　do　the　complicated　and　constant　work　which
  the　new　Constitution　calls　for；　for　they　are　the　only　men　whose
  desires　are　unlimited；　whose　dreams　are　coherent；　whose　doctrine　is
  explicit；　whose　enthusiasm　is　contagious；　who　cherish　no　scruples；
  and　whose　presumption　is　unbounded。　　Thus　has　the　rigid　will　been
  wrought　and　tempered　within　them；　the　inward　spring　of　energy　which；
  being　daily　more　tightly　wound　up；　urges　them　on　to　propaganda　and
  to　action。　…　During　the　second　half　of　the　year　1790　we　see　them
  everywhere　following　the　example　of　the　Paris　Jacobins；　styling
  themselves　friends　of　the　Constitution；　and　grouping　themselves
  together　in　popular　associations。　　Each　town　and　village　gives　birth
  to　a　club　of　patriots　who　regularly　every　evening；　or　several　times
  a　week；　meet　〃for　the　purpose　of　co…operating　for　the　safety　of　the
  commonwealth。〃＇34＇　This　is　a　new　and　spontaneous　organ；＇35＇　an
  cancer　and　a　parasite；　which　develops　itself　in　the　social　body
  alongside　of　its　legal　organizations。　　Its　growth　insensibly
  increases；　attracting　to　itself　the　substance　of　the　others；
  employing　them　for　its　own　ends；　substituting　itself　for　them；
  acting　by　and　for　itself　alone；　a　sort　of　omnivorous　outgrowth　the
  encroachment　of　which　is　irresistible；　not　only　because
  circumstances　and　the　working　of　the　Constitution　nourish　it；　but
  also　because　its　germ；　deposited　at　a　great　depth；　is　a　living
  portion　of　the　Constitution　itself。
  For；　placed　at　the　head　of　the　Constitution；　as　well　as　of　the
  decrees　which　are　attached　to　it；　stands　the　Declaration　of　the
  Rights　of　Man。　　According　to　this；　and　by　the　avowal　of　the
  legislators　themselves；　there　are　two　parts　to　be　distinguished　in
  the　law；　the　one　superior；　eternal；　inviolable；　which　is　the　self…
  evident　principle；　and　the　other　inferior；　temporary；　and　open　to
  discussion；　which　comprehends　more　or　less　exact　or　erroneous
  applications　of　this　principle。　　No　application　of　the　law　is　valid
  if　it　derogates　from　the　principle。　　No　institution　or　authority　is
  entitled　to　obedience　if　it　is　opposed　to　the　rights　which　it　aims
  to　guarantee。　　These　sacred　rights；　anterior　to　all　society；　take
  precedence　of　every　social　convention；　and　whenever　we　would　know　if
  a　legal　order　is　legitimate；　we　have　merely　to　ascertain　if　it　is　in
  conformity　with　natural　right。　　Let　us；　accordingly；　in　every
  doubtful　or　difficult　case；　refer　to　this　philosophic　gospel；　to
  this　incontestable　catechism；　this　primordial　creed　proclaimed　by
  the　National　Assembly。　…　The　National　Assembly　itself　invites　us　to
  do　so。　　For　it　announces　that
  〃ignorance；　neglect；　or　contempt　of　the　rights　of　man　are　the　sole
  causes
  of　public　misfortune；　　and　of　the　corruption　of　governments。〃
  It　declares　that
  〃the　object　of　every　political　association　is　the　preservation　of
  natural　and
  imprescriptible　rights。〃
  It　enumerates　them；　〃in　order　that　the　acts　of　legislative　power　and
  the　acts　of　executive　power　may　at　once　be　compared　with　the　purpose
  of　every　political　institution。〃　It　desires　〃that　every　member　of
  the　social　body　should　have　its　declaration　constantly　in　mind。〃　…
  Thus　we　are　told　to　control　all　acts　of　application　by　the
  principle；　and　also　we　are　provided　with　the　rule　by　which　we　may
  and　should　accord；　measure；　or　even　refuse　our　submission　to；
  deference　for；　and　toleration　of　established　institutions　and　legal
  authority。
  What　are　these　superior　rights；　and；　in　case　of　dispute；　who　will
  decide　as　arbitrator？　…　There　is　nothing　here　like　the　precise
  declarations　of　the　American　Constitution；＇36＇　those　positive
  prescriptions　which　serve　to　sustain　a　judicial　appeal；　those
  express　prohibitions　which　prevent　beforehand　certain　species　of
  laws　from　being　passed；　which　prescribe　limits　to　public　powers；
  which　mark　out　the　province　not　to　be　invaded　by　the　State　because
  it　is　reserved　to　the　individual。
  On　the　contrary；　in　the　declaration　of　the　national　Assembly；　most
  of　the　articles　are　abstract　dogmas；＇37＇　metaphysical　definitions；
  more　or　less　literary　axioms；　that　is　to　say；　more　or　less　false；
  now　vague　and　now　contradictory；　open　to　various　interpretations　and
  to　opposite　constructions；　These　are　good　for　platform　display　but
  bad　in　practice；　mere　stage　effect；　a　sort　of　pompous　standard；
  useless　and　heavy；　which；　hoisted　in　front　of　the　Constitutional
  house　and　shaken　every　day　by　violent　hands；　cannot　fail　soon　to
  tumble　on　the　heads　of　passers　by。＇38＇　…　　Nothing　is　done　to　ward
  off　this　visible　danger。　　There　is　nothing　here　like　that　Supreme
  Court　which；　in　the　United　States；　guards　the　Constitution　even
  against　its　Congress；　and　which；　in　the　name　of　the　Constitution；
  actually　invalidates　a　law；　even　when　it　has　passed　through　all
  formalities　and　been　voted　on　by　all　the　powers；　which　listens　to
  the　complaints　of　the　individual　affected　by　an　unconstitutional
  law；　which　stays　the　sheriff's　or　collector's　hand　raised　against
  him；　and　which　above　their　heads　gives　judgment　on　his　interests　and
  wrongs。　　Ill…defined　and　discordant　laws　are　proclaimed　without　any
  provision　being　made　for　their　interpretation；　application　or
  sanction。　　No　means　are　taken　to　have　them　specially　expounded。　　No
  district　tribunal　is　assigned　to　consider　the　claims　which　grow　out
  of　them；　to　put　an　end　to　litigation　legally；　peacefully；　on　a　last
  appeal；　and　through　a　final　decision　which　becomes　a　precedent　and
  fixes　the　loose　sense　of　the　text。　　All　this　is　made　the　duty　of
  everybody；　that　is　to　say　of　those　who　are　disposed　to　charge
  themselves　with　it；　…　in　other　words；　the　active　minority　in　council
  assembled。　…　Thus；　in　each　town　or　village　it　is　the　local　club
  which；　by　the　authorization　of　the　legislator　himself；　becomes　the
  champion；　judge；　interpreter　and　administrator　of　the　rights　of　man；
  and　which；　in　the　name　of　these　superior　rights；　may　protest　or
  rebel；　as　it　seems　best；　not　only　against　the　legitimate　acts　of
  legal　powers；　but　also　against　the　authentic　text　of　the
  Constitution　and　the　Laws。＇39＇
  Consider；　indeed；　these　rights　as　they　are　proclaimed；　along　with