cause；　assigns　them　to　the　State：
  〃The　founders　presented　them　to　the　Church；　that　is　to　say；　to　the
  nation。〃＇56＇　〃Since　the　nation　has　permitted　their　possession　by　the
  clergy；　she　may　re…demand　that　which　is　possessed　only　through　her
  authorization。〃　〃The　principle　must　be　maintained　that　every　nation
  is　solely　and　veritably　proprietor　of　the　possessions　of　its
  clergy。〃
  This　principle；　it　must　be　noted；　as　it　is　laid　down；　involves　the
  destruction　of　ecclesiastical　and　lay　corporations；　along　with　the
  confiscation　of　all　their　possessions；　and　soon　we　shall　see
  appearing　on　the　horizon　the　final　and　complete　decree＇57＇　by　which
  the　Legislative　Assembly；
  〃considering　that　a　State　truly　free　should　not　suffer　any
  corporation　within　its　bosom；　not　even　those　which；　devoted　to
  public　instruction；　deserve　well　of　the　country；〃　not　even　those
  〃which　are　solely　devoted　to　the　service　of　the　hospitals…and　the
  relief　of　the　sick；〃
  suppresses　all　congregations；　all　associations　of　men　or　of　women；
  lay　or　ecclesiastical；　all　endowments　for　pious；　charitable；　and
  missionary　purposes；　all　houses　of　education；　all　seminaries　and
  colleges；　and　those　of　the　Sorbonne　and　Navarre。　　Add　to　these　the
  last　sweep　of　the　broom：　under　the　Legislative　Assembly　the　division
  of　all　communal　property；　except　woods：　under　the　Convention；　the
  abolition　of　all　literary　societies；　academies　of　science　and　of
  literature；　the　confiscation　of　all　their　property；　their　libraries；
  museums；　and　botanical　gardens；　the　confiscation　of　all　communal
  possessions　not　previously　divided；　and　the　confiscation　of　all　the
  property　of　hospitals　and　other　philanthropic　establishments。＇58＇
  The　abstract　principle；　proclaimed　by　the　Constituent　Assembly；
  reveals；　by　degrees；　its　exterminating　virtues。　　France　now；　owing
  to　it；　contains　nothing　but　dispersed；　powerless；　ephemeral
  individuals；　and　confronting　them；　the　State；　the　sole；　the　only
  permanent　body　that　has　devoured　all　the　others；　a　veritable
  Colossus；　alone　erect　in　the　midst　of　these　insignificant　dwarfs。
  Substituted　for　the　others；　it　is　henceforth　to　perform　their
  duties；　and　spend　the　money　well　which　they　have　expended　badly。
  In　the　first　place；　it　abolishes　tithes；　not　gradually　and　by　means
  of　a　process　of　redemption；　as　in　England；　but　at　one　stroke；　and
  with　no　indemnity；　on　the　ground　that　the　tax；　being　an　abusive；
  illegitimate　impost；　a　private　tax　levied　by　individuals　in　cowl　and
  cassock　on　others　in　smock　frocks；　is　a　vexatious　usurpation；　and
  resembles　the　feudal　dues。　　It　is　a　radical　operation；　and　in
  conformity　with　principle。　　Unfortunately；　the　puerility　of　the
  thing　is　so　gross　as　to　defeat　its　own　object。　　In　effect；　since　the
  days　of　Charlemagne；　all　the　estates　in　the　country　which　have　been
  sold　and　resold　over　and　over　again　have　always　paid　tithes；　and
  have　never　been　purchased　except　with　this　charge　upon　them；　which
  amounts　to　about　one…seventh　of　the　net　revenue　of　the　country。
  Take　off　this　tax　and　one…seventh　is　added　to　the　income　of　the
  proprietor；　and；　consequently；　a　seventh　to　his　capital。　　A　present
  is　made　to　him　of　one　hundred　francs　if　his　land　is　worth　seven
  hundred…francs；　and　of　one　thousand　if　it　is　worth　seven　thousand；
  of　ten　thousand　if　it　is　worth　seventy　thousand；　and　of　one　hundred
  thousand　if　it　is　worth　seven　hundred　thousand。　　Some　people　gain
  six　hundred　thousand　francs　by　this　act；　and　thirty　thousand　francs
  in　Income。＇59＇　　　Through　this　gratuitous　and　unexpected　gift；　one
  hundred　and　twenty…three　millions　of　revenue；　and　two　milliards　and
  a　half　of　capital；　is　divided　among　the　holders　of　real　estate　in
  France；　and　in　a　manner　so　ingenious　that　the　rich　receive　the　most。
  Such　is　the　effect　of　abstract　principles。　　To　afford　a　relief　of
  thirty　millions　a　year　to　the　peasants　in　wooden　shoes；　an　assembly
  of　democrats　adds　thirty　millions　a　year　to　the　revenue　of　wealthy
  bourgeois　and　thirty　millions　a　year　to　opulent　nobles。　　The　first
  part　of　this　operation　moreover；　is　but　another　burden　to　the　State；
  for；　in　taking　off　the　load　from　the　holders　of　real　property；　it
  has　encumbered　itself；　the　State　henceforth；　without　pocketing　a
  penny；　being　obliged　to　defray　the　expenses　of　worship　in　their
  place。　…　As　to　the　second　part　of　the　operation；　which　consists　in
  the　confiscation　of　four　milliards　of　real　estate；　it　proves；　after
  all；　to　be　ruinous；　although　promising　to　be　lucrative。　　It　makes
  the　same　impression　on　our　statesmen　that　the　inheritance　of　a　great
  estate　makes　on　a　needy　and　fanciful　upstart。　　Regarding　it　as　a
  bottomless　well　of　gold；　he　draws　upon　it　without　stint　and　strives
  to　realize　all　his　fancies；　as　he　can　afford　to　pay　for　it　all；　he
  is　free　to　smash　it　all。　　It　is　thus　that　the　Assembly　suppresses
  and　compensates　magisterial　offices　to　the　amount　of　four　hundred
  and　fifty　millions；　financial　securities　and　obligations　to　the
  amount　of　three　hundred　and　twenty…one　millions；　the　household
  charges　of　the　King；　Queen；　and　princes；　fifty…two　millions；
  military　services　and　encumbrances；　thirty…five　millions；　enfeoffed
  tithes；　one　hundred　millions；　and　so　on。＇60＇　　〃In　the　month　of　May；
  1789；〃　says　Necker；　〃the　re…establishment　of　order　in　the　finances
  were　mere　child's…play。〃　At　the　end　of　a　year；　by　dint　of　involving
  itself　in　debt；　by　increasing　its　expenses；　and　by　abolishing　or
  abandoning　its　income；　the　State　lives　now　on　the　paper…currency　it
  issues；　eats　up　its　capital；　and　rapidly　marches　onward　to
  bankruptcy。　　Never　was　such　a　vast　inheritance　so　quickly　reduced　to
  nothing；　and　to　less　than　nothing。
  Meanwhile；　we　can　demonstrate；　from　the　first　few　months；　what　use
  the　administrators　will　be　able　to　make　of　it；　and　the　manner　in
  which　they　will　endow　the　service　to　which　it　binds　them。　　　　No
  portion　of　this　confiscated　property　is　reserved　for　the　maintenance
  of　public　worship；　or　to　keep　up　the　hospitals；　asylums；　and
  schools。　　Not　only　do　all　obligations　and　all　productive　real
  property　find　their　way　into　the　great　national　crucible　to　be
  converted　into　assignats＇61＇；　but　a　number　of　special　buildings；　all
  monastic　real　estate　and　a　portion　of　the　ecclesiastical　real
  estate；　diverted　from　its　natural　course；　becomes　swallowed　up　in
  the　same　gulf。　　At　Besan？on；＇62＇　three　churches　out　of　eight；　with
  their　land　and　treasure；　the　funds　of　the　chapter；　all　the　money　of
  the　monastic　churches；　the　sacred　vessels；　shrines；　crosses；
  reliquaries；　votive　offerings；　ivories；　statues；　pictures；　tapestry；
  sacerdotal　dresses　and　ornaments；　plate；　jewels　and　precious
  furniture；　libraries；　railings；　bells；　masterpieces　of　art　and　of
  piety；　all　are　broken　up　and　melted　in　the　Mint；　or　sold　by　auction
  for　almost　nothing。　　This　is　the　way　in　which　the　intentions　of　the
  founders　and　donors　are　carried　out。　　　　How　are　so　many
  communities；　which　are　deprived　of　their　rentals；　to　support　their
  schools；　hospices；　and　asylums？　Even　after　the　decree＇63＇　which；
  exceptionally　and　provisionally；　orders　the　whole　of　their　revenue
  to　be　accounted　for　to　them；　will　it　be　paid　over　now　that　it　is
  collected　by　a　local　administration　whose　coffers　are　always　empty；
  and　whose　intentions　are　almost　always　hostile？　Every　establishment
  for　benevolent　and　educational　purposes　is　evidently　sinking；　now
  that　the　special　streams　which　nourished　them　run　into　and　are　lost
  in　the　dry　bed　of　the　public　treasury。＇64＇　　Already；　in　1790；　there
  are　no　funds　with　which　to　pay　the　monks　and　nuns　their　small
  pensions　for　their　maintenance。　　In　Franche…Comté　the　Capuchins　of
  Baume　have　no　bread；　and；　to　live；　they　are　obliged　to　re…sell；　with
  the　consent　of　the　district；　a　portion　of　the　stores　of　their
  monastery　which　had　been　confiscated。　　The　Ursuline　nuns　of　Ornans
  live　on　the　means　furnished　them　by　private　individuals　in　order　to
  keep　up　the　only　school　which　the　town　possesses。　　The　Bernardine
  nuns　of　Pontarlier　are　reduced　to　the　lowest　stage　of　want：　〃We　are
  satisfied；〃　the　district　reports；　〃that　they　have　nothing　to　put
  into　their　mouths。　　We　have　to　contribute　something　every　day
  amongst　ourselves　to　keep　them　from　starving。〃＇65＇　　Only　too
  thankful　are　they　when　the　local　administration　gives　them　something
  to　eat；　or　allows　others　to　give　them　something。　　In　many　places　it
  strives　to　famish　them；　or　takes　delight　in　annoying　them。　　In
  March；　1791；　the　department　of　Doubs；　in　spite　of　the　entreaties　of
  the　district；　reduces　the　pension　of　the　Visitant　nuns　to　one
  hundred　and　one　livres　for　the　choristers；　and　fifty　for　the　lay…
  sisters。　　Two　months　before　this；　the　municipality　of　Besan？on；
  putting　its　own　interpretation　on　the　decree　which　allowed　nuns　to
  dress　as　they　pleased；　enjoins　them　all；　including　even　the　sisters
  of　charity；　to　abandon　their　old　costume；　which　few　among　them　had
  the　means　of　replacing。　　　Helplessness；　indifference；　or
  male