Excluded　from　the　Government；　the　aristocracy　is　about　to　retire
  into　private　life。　　Let　us　follow　them　to　their　estates：　Feudal
  rights　instituted　for　a　barbarous　State　are　certainly　a　great　draw…
  back　in　a　modern　State。　　If　appropriate　in　an　epoch　when　property
  and　sovereignty　were　fused　together；　when　the　Government　was　local；
  when　life　was　militant；　they　form　an　incongruity　at　a　time　when
  sovereignty　and　property　are　separated；　when　the　Government　is
  centralized；　when　the　regime　is　a　pacific　one。　　The　bondage　which；
  in　the　tenth　century；　was　necessary　to　re…established　security　and
  agriculture；　is；　in　the　eighteenth　century；　purposeless　thralldom
  which　impoverishes　the　soil　and　fetters　the　peasant。　　But；　because
  these　ancient　claims　are　liable　to　abuse　and　injurious　at　the
  present　day；　it　does　not　follow　that　they　never　were　useful　and
  legitimate；　nor　that　it　is　allowable　to　abolish　them　without
  indemnity　On　the　contrary；　for　many　centuries；　and；　on　the　whole；　so
  long　as　the　lord　of　the　manor　resided　on　his　estates　this　primitive
  contract　was　advantageous　to　both　parties；　and　to　such　an　extent
  that　it　has　led　to　the　modern　contract。　　Thanks　to　the　pressure　of
  this　tight　bandage；　the　broken　fragments　of　the　community　can　be
  again　united；　and　society　once　more　recover　its　solidity；　force；　and
  activity。　　　　In　any　event；　that　the　institution；　like　all　human
  institutions；　took　its　rise　in　violence　and　was　corrupted　by　abuses
  is　of　little　consequence；　the　State；　for　eight　hundred　years；
  recognized　these　feudal　claims；　and；　with　its　own　consent　and　the
  concurrence　of　its　Courts；　they　were　transmitted；　bequeathed；　sold；
  mortgaged；　and　exchanged；　like　any　other　species　of　property。　　Only
  two　or　three　hundred；　at　most；　now　remained　in　the　families　of　the
  original　proprietors。　　〃The　largest　portion　of　the　titled　estates；〃
  says　a　contemporary；＇18＇　〃have　become　the　property　of　capitalists；
  merchants；　and　their　descendants；　the　fiefs；　for　the　most　part；
  being　in　the　hands　of　the　bourgeois　of　the　towns。〃　All　the　fiefs
  which；　during　two　centuries　past；　have　been　bought　by　new　men；　now
  represent　the　economy　and　labor　of　their　purchasers。　　　　Moreover；
  whoever　the　actual　holders　may　be；　whether　old　or　whether　new　men；
  the　State　is　under　obligation　to　them；　not　only　by　general　right
  and　because；　from　the　beginning；　it　is　in　its　nature　the　guardian　of
  all　property；　　　but　also　by　a　special　right；　because　it　has　itself
  sanctioned　this　particular　species　of　property。　　The　buyers　of
  yesterday　paid　their　money　only　under　its　guarantee；　its　signature
  is　affixed　to　the　contract；　and　it　has　bound　itself　to　secure　to
  them　the　enjoyment　of　it。　　If　it　prevents　them　from　doing　so；　let　it
  make　them　compensation；　in　default　of　the　thing　promised　to　them；　it
  owes　them　the　value　of　it。　　Such　is　the　law　in　cases　of
  expropriation　for　public　utility；　in　1834；　for　instance；　the
  English；　for　the　legal　abolition　of　slavery；　paid　to　their　planters
  the　sum　of　￡20；000；000。　　　　　…　But　that　is　not　sufficient：　when；　in
  the　suppression　of　feudal　rights；　the　legislator's　thoughts　are
  taken　up　with　the　creditors；　he　has　only　half　performed　his　task；
  there　are　two　sides　to　the　question；　and　he　must　likewise　think　of
  the　debtors。　　If　he　is　not　merely　a　lover　of　abstractions　and　of
  fine　phrases；　if　that　which　interests　him　is　men　and　not　words；　if
  he　is　bent　upon　the　effective　enfranchisement　of　the　cultivator　of
  the　soil；　he　will　not　rest　content　with　proclaiming　a　principle；
  with　permitting　the　redemption　of　rents；　with　fixing　the　rate　of
  redemption；　and；　in　case　of　dispute；　with　sending　parties　before　the
  tribunals。　　He　will　reflect　that　the　peasantry；　jointly　responsible
  for　the　same　debt　will　find　difficulty　in　agreeing　among　themselves；
  that　they　are　afraid　of　litigation；　that；　being　ignorant；　they　will
  not　know　how　to　set　about　it；　that；　being　poor；　they　will　be　unable
  to　pay；　and　that；　under　the　weight　of　discord；　distrust；　indigence；
  and　inertia；　the　new　law　will　remain　a　dead　letter；　and　only
  exasperate　their　cupidity　or　kindle　their　resentment。　　In
  anticipation　of　this　disorder　the　legislator　will　come　to　their
  assistance　；　he　will　interpose　commissions　of　arbitration　between
  them　and　the　lord　of　the　manor；　he　will　substitute　a　scale　of
  annuities　for　a　full　and　immediate　redemption；　he　will　lend　them　the
  capital　which　they　cannot　borrow　elsewhere；　he　will　establish　a
  bank；　rights；　and　a　mode　of　procedure；　　　in　short；　as　in　Savoy　in
  1771；　in　England　in　1845；＇19＇　and　in　Russia　in　1861；　he　will　relieve
  the　poor　without　despoiling　the　rich；　he　will　establish　liberty
  without　violating　the　rights　of　property；　he　will　conciliate
  interests　and　classes；　he　will　not　let　loose　a　brutal　peasant　revolt
  （Jacquerie）　to　enforce　unjust　confiscation；　and　he　will　terminate
  the　social　conflict　not　with　strife　but　with　peace。
  It　is　just　the　reverse　in　1789　In　conformity　with　the　doctrine　of
  the　social　contract；　the　principle　is　set　up　that　every　man　is　born
  free；　and　that　his　freedom　has　always　been　inalienable。　　If　he
  formerly　submitted　to　slavery　or　to　serfdom；　it　was　owing　to　his
  having　had　a　knife　at　his　throat；　a　contract　of　this　sort　is
  essentially　null　and　void。　　So　much　the　worse　for　those　who　have　the
  benefit　of　it　at　the　present　day；　they　are　holders　of　stolen
  property；　and　must　restore　it　to　the　legitimate　owners。　　Let　no　one
  object　that　this　property　was　acquired　for　cash　down；　and　in　good
  faith；　they　ought　to　have　known　beforehand　that　man　and　his　liberty
  are　not　commercial　matters；　and　that　unjust　acquisitions　rightly
  perish　in　their　hands。＇20＇　　Nobody　dreams　that　the　State　which　was　a
  party　to　this　transaction　is　the　responsible　guarantor。　　Only　one
  scruple　affects　the　Assembly　；　its　jurists　and　Merlin；　its　reporter；
  are　obliged　to　yield　to　proof；　they　know　that　in　current　practice；
  and　by　innumerable　ancient　and　modern　titles；　the　noble　in　many
  cases　is　nothing　but　an　ordinary　lessor；　and　that　if；　in　those
  cases；　he　collects　his　dues；　it　is　simply　in　his　capacity　as　a
  private　person；　by　virtue　of　a　mutual　contract；　because　he　has　given
  a　perpetual　lease　of　a　certain　portion　of　his　land；　and　he　has　given
  it　only　in　consideration　of　an　annual　payment　in　money　or　produce；
  or　services；　together　with　another　contingent　claim　which　the　farmer
  pays　in　case　of　the　transmission　of　the　lease。　　These　two
  obligations　could　not　be　canceled　without　indemnity；　if　it　were
  done；　more　than　one…half　of　the　proprietors　in　France　would　be
  dispossessed　in　favor　of　the　farmers。　　Hence　the　distinction　which
  the　Assembly　makes　in　the　feudal　dues。　　　　On　the　one　hand　it
  abolishes　without　indemnity　all　those　dues　which　the　noble　receives
  by　virtue　of　being　the　local　sovereign；　the　ancient　proprietor　of
  persons　and　the　usurper　of　public。　　powers；　all　those　which　the
  lessee　paid　as　serf；　subject　to　rights　of　inheritance；　and　as　former
  vassal　or　dependent。　　On　the　other　hand；　it　maintains　and　decrees　as
  redeemable　at　a　certain　rate　all　those　which　the　noble　receives
  through　his　title　of　landed　proprietor　and　of　simple　lessor；　all
  those　which　the　lessee　pays　by　virtue　of　being　a　free　contracting
  party；　former　purchaser；　tenant；　farmer　or　grantee　of　landed　estate。
  By　this　division　it　fancies　that　it　has　respected　lawful
  ownership　by　overthrowing　illegitimate　property；　and　that　in　the
  feudal　scheme　of　obligations；　it　has　separated　the　wheat　from　the
  chaff。＇21＇
  But；　through　the　principle；　the　drawing　up　and　the　omissions　of　its
  law；　it　condemns　both　to　a　common　destruction；　the　fire　on　which　it
  has　thrown　the　chaff　necessarily　burns　up　the　wheat。　　　　Both　are
  in　fact　bound　up　together　in　the　same　sheaf。　　If　the　noble　formerly
  brought　men　under　subjection　by　the　sword；　it　is　also　by　the　sword
  that　he　formerly　acquired　possession　of　the　soil。　　If　the　subjection
  of　persons　is　invalid　on　account　of　the　original　stain　of　violence；
  the　usurpation　of　the　soil　is　invalid　for　the　same　reason。　　And　if
  the　sanction　and　guarantee　of　the　State　could　not　justify　the　first
  act　of　brigandage；　they　could　not　justify　the　second；　and；　since　the
  rights　which　are　derived　from　unjust　sovereignty　are　abolished
  without　indemnity；　the　rights　which　are　derived　from　unjust
  proprietorship　should　be　likewise　abolished　without　compensation。　　…
  …　　The　Assembly；　with　remarkable　imprudence；　had　declared　in　the
  preamble　to　its　law　that　〃it　abolished　the　feudal　system　entirely；〃
  and；　whatever　its　ulterior　reservations　might　be；　the　fiat　has　gone
  forth。　　The　forty　thousand　sovereign　municipalities　to　which　the
  text　of　the　decree　is　read　pay　attention　only　to　the　first　article；
  and　the　village　attorney；　imbued　with　the　rights　of　man；　easily
  proves　to　these　assemblies　of　debtors　that　they　owe　nothing　to　their
  creditors。　　There　must　be　no　exceptions　nor　distinctions：　no　more
  annual　rents；　field…rents；　dues　on　produce；　nor　contingent　rents；
  no