twenty　years　the　peasant；　already　proprietor　of　a　fifth　of　the　soil；
  would；　without　the　violent　events　of　the　Revolution；　in　any　case
  have　attained　the　same　degree　of　independence　and　well…being　which
  he　was　to　achieve　by　passing　through　it。　　On　the　other　hand；　through
  the　annual　vote　on　the　taxes；　not　only　were　waste　and　arbitrariness
  in　the　employment　of　the　public　funds　put　a　stop　to；　but　also　the
  foundations　of　the　parliamentary　system　of　government　were　laid：
  whoever　holds　the　purse…strings　is；　or　becomes；　master　of　the　rest；
  henceforth　in　the　maintenance　or　establishment　of　any　service；　the
  assent　of　the　States　was　to　be　necessary。　　Now；　in　the　three
  Chambers　which　the　three　orders　were　thenceforward　to　form；　there
  were　two　in　which　the　plebeians　predominated。　　Public　opinion；
  moreover；　was　on　their　side；　while　the　King；　the　true　constitutional
  monarch；　far　from　possessing　the　imperious　inflexibility　of　a
  despot；　did　not　now　possess　the　initiative　of　an　ordinary　person。
  Thus　the　preponderance　fell　to　the　communes；　and　they　could　legally；
  without　any　collision；　execute　multiply；　and　complete；　with　the　aid
  of　the　prince　and　through　him；　all　useful　reforms。＇7＇　　　This　was
  enough；　for　human　society；　like　a　living　body；　is　seized　with
  convulsions　when　it　is　subjected　to　operations　on　too　great　a　scale；
  and　these；　although　restricted；　were　probably　all　that　France　in
  1789　could　endure。　　To　equitably　reorganize　afresh　the　whole　system
  of　direct　and　indirect　taxation；　to　revise；　recast；　and　transfer　to
  the　frontiers　the　customs…tariffs；　to　suppress；　through　negotiations
  and　with　indemnity；　feudal　and　ecclesiastical　claims；　was　an
  operation　of　the　greatest　magnitude；　and　as　complex　as　it　was
  delicate。　　Things　could　be　satisfactorily　arranged　only　through
  minute　inquiries；　verified　calculations；　prolonged　essays；　and
  mutual　concessions。　　In　England；　in　our　day；　a　quarter　of　a　century
  has　been　required　to　bring　about　a　lesser　reform；　the　transformation
  of　tithes　and　manorial…rights；　and　time　likewise　was　necessary　for
  our　Assemblies　to　perfect　their　political　education；＇8＇　to　get　of
  their　theories；　to　learn；　by　contact　with　practical　business；　and　in
  the　study　of　details；　the　distance　which　separates　speculation　from
  practice；　to　discover　that　a　new　system　of　institutions　works　well
  only　through　a　new　system　of　habits；　and　that　to　decree　a　new　system
  of　habits　is　tantamount　to　attempting　to　build　an　old　house。
  Such；　however；　is　the　work　they　undertake。　　They　reject　the　King's
  proposals；　the　limited　reforms；　the　gradual　transformations。
  According　to　them；　it　is　their　right　and　their　duty　to　re…make
  society　from　top　to　bottom。　　Such　is　the　command　of　pure　reason；
  which　has　discovered　the　Rights　of　Man　and　the　conditions　of　the
  Social　Contract。
  II
  Nature　of　societies；　and　the　principle　of　enduring　constitutions。
  Apply　the　Social　Contract；　if　you　like；　but　apply　it　only　to　those
  for　whom　it　was　drawn　up。　　These　were　abstract　beings；　belonging
  neither　to　a　period　nor　to　a　country；　perfect　creatures　hatched　out
  under　the　magic　wand　of　a　metaphysician。　　They　had　as　a　matter　of
  fact　come　into　existence　by　removing　all　the　characteristics　which
  distinguish　one　man　from　another；＇9＇　a　Frenchman　from　a　Papuan；　a
  modern　Englishman　from　a　Briton　in　the　time　of　Caesar；　and　by
  retaining　only　the　part　which　is　common　to　all。＇10＇　The　essence　thus
  obtained　is　a　prodigiously　meager　one；　an　infinitely　curtailed
  extract　of　human　nature；　that　is；　in　the　phraseology　of　the　day；
  〃A　BEING　WITH　A　DESIRE　TO　BE　HAPPY　AND　THE　FACULTY　OF　REASONING；〃
  nothing　more　and　nothing　else。　　After　this　pattern　several　million
  individuals；　all　precisely　alike；　have　been　prepared　while；　through
  a　second　simplification；　as　extraordinary　as　the　first　one；　they　are
  all　supposed　to　be　free　and　all　equal；　without　a　past；　without
  kindred；　without　responsibility；　without　traditions；　without
  customs；　like　so　many　mathematical　units；　all　separable　and　all
  equivalent；　and　then　it　is　imagined　that；　assembled　together　for　the
  first　time；　these　proceed　to　make　their　primitive　bargain。　　From　the
  nature　they　are　supposed　to　possess　and　the　situation　in　which　they
  are　placed；　no　difficulty　is　found　in　deducing　their　interests；
  their　wills；　and　the　contract　between　them。　　But　if　this　contract
  suits　them；　it　does　not　follow　that　it　suits　others。　　On　the
  contrary；　if　follows　that　is　does　not　suit　others；　the　inconvenience
  becomes　extreme　on　its　being　imposed　on　a　living　society；　the
  measure　of　that　inconvenience　will　be　the　immensity　of　the　distance
  which　divides　a　hollow　abstraction；　a　philosophical　phantom；　an
  empty　insubstantial　image　from　the　real　and　complete　man。
  In　any　event　we　are　not　here　considering　a　specimen；　so　reduced　and
  mutilated　as　to　be　only　an　outline　of　a　human　being；　no；　we　are　to
  the　contrary　considering　Frenchmen　of　the　year　1789。　　It　is　for　them
  alone　that　the　constitution　is　being　made：　it　is　therefore　they
  alone　who　should　be　considered；　they　are　manifestly　men　of　a
  particular　species；　having　their　peculiar　temperament；　their　special
  aptitudes；　their　own　inclinations；　their　religion；　their　history；
  all　adding　up　into　a　mental　and　moral　structure；　hereditary　and
  deeply　rooted；　bequeathed　to　them　by　the　indigenous　stock；　and　to
  which　every　great　event；　each　political　or　literary　phase　for　twenty
  centuries；　has　added　a　growth；　a　transformation　or　a　custom。　　It　is
  like　some　tree　of　a　unique　species　whose　trunk；　thickened　by　age；
  preserves　in　its　annual　rings　and　in　its　knots；　branches；　and
  curvatures；　the　deposits　which　its　sap　has　made　and　the　imprint　of
  the　innumerable　seasons　through　which　it　has　passed。　　Using　the
  philosophic　definition；　so　vague　and　trite；　to　such　an　organism；　is
  only　a　puerile　label　teaching　us　nothing。　　　　And　all　the　more
  because　extreme　diversities　and　inequalities　show　themselves　on　this
  exceedingly　elaborate　and　complicated　background；　　those　of　age；
  education；　faith；　class　and　fortune；　and　these　must　be　taken　into
  account；　for　these　contribute　to　the　formation　of　interests；
  passions；　and　dispositions。　　To　take　only　the　most　important　of
  these；　it　is　clear　that；　according　to　the　average　of　human　life；＇11＇
  one…half　of　the　population　is　composed　of　children；　and；　besides
  this；　one…half　of　the　adults　are　women。　　In　every　twenty　inhabitants
  eighteen　are　Catholic；　of　whom　sixteen　are　believers；　at　least
  through　habit　and　tradition。　　Twenty…five　out　of　twenty…six　millions
  of　Frenchmen　cannot　read；　one　million　at　the　most　being　able　to　do
  so；　and　in　political　matters　only　five　or　six　hundred　are　competent。
  As　to　the　condition　of　each　class；　its　ideas；　its　sentiments；　its
  kind　and　degree　of　culture；　we　should　have　to　devote　a　large　volume
  to　a　mere　sketch　of　them。
  There　is　still　another　feature　and　the　most　important　of　all。　　These
  men　who　are　so　different　from　each　other　are　far　from　being
  independent；　or　from　contracting　together　for　the　first　time。　　They
  and　their　ancestors　for　eight　hundred　years　form　a　national　body；
  and　it　is　because　they　belong　to　this　body　that　they　live；　multiply；
  labor；　make　acquisitions；　become　enlightened　and　civilized；　and
  accumulate　the　vast　heritage　of　comforts　and　intelligence　which　they
  now　enjoy。　　Each　in　this　community　is　like　the　cell　of　an　organized
  body；　undoubtedly　the　body　is　only　an　accumulation　of　cells；　but　the
  cell　is　born；　subsists；　develops　and　attains　its　individual　ends
  only　be　the　healthy　condition　of　the　whole　body。　　Its　chief
  interest；　accordingly；　is　the　prosperity　of　the　whole　organism；　and
  the　fundamental　requirement　of　all　the　little　fragmentary　lives；
  whether　they　know　it　or　not；　is　the　conservation　of　the　great　total
  life　in　which　they　are　comprised　as　musical　notes　in　a　concert。
  Not　only　is　this　a　necessity　for　them；　but　it　is　also　a　duty。　　We
  are　all　born　with　a　debt　to　our　country；　and　this　debt　increases
  while　we　grow　up；　it　is　with　the　assistance　of　our　country；　under
  the　protection　of　the　law；　upheld　by　the　authorities；　that　our
  ancestors　and　parents　have　given　us　life；　property；　and　education。
  Each　person's　faculties；　ideas；　attitudes；　his　or　her　entire　moral
  and　physical　being　are　the　products　to　which　the　community　has
  contributed；　directly　or　indirectly；　at　least　as　tutor　and　guardian。
  By　virtue　of　this　the　state　is　his　creditor；　just　as　a　destitute
  father　is　of　his　able…bodied　son；　it　can　lay　claim　to　nourishment；
  services；　and；　in　all　the　force　or　resources　of　which　he　disposes；
  it　deservedly　demands　a　share。　　　This　he　knows　and　feels；　the
  notion　of　country　is　deeply　implanted　within　him；　and　when　occasion
  calls　for　it；　it　will　show　itself　in　ardent　emotions；　fueling　steady
  sacrifice　and　heroic　effort。　　　Such　are　veritable　Frenchmen；　and
  we　at　once　see　how　different　they　are　from　the　simple；
  indistinguishable；　detached　monads　which　the　philosophers　insist　on