artisans　flock　to　the　relief　works；　where　they　can　earn　only　twelve
  sous　a　day。　　In　Lorraine；　according　to　the　testimony　of　all
  observers；　〃the　people　are　half　dead　with　hunger。〃　In　Paris　the
  number　of　paupers　has　been　trebled；　there　are　thirty　thousand　in　the
  Faubourg　Saint…Antoine　alone。　　Around　Paris　there　is　a　short　supply
  of　grain；　or　it　is　spoilt＇5＇。　　In　the　beginning　of　July；　at
  Montereau；　the　market　is　empty。　　〃The　bakers　could　not　have　baked〃
  if　the　police　officers　had　not　increased　the　price　of　bread　to　five
  sous　per　pound；　the　rye　and　barley　which　the　intendant　is　able　to
  send　〃are　of　the　worst　possible　quality；　rotten　and　in　a　condition
  to　produce　dangerous　diseases。　　Nevertheless；　most　of　the　small
  consumers　are　reduced　to　the　hard　necessity　of　using　this　spoilt
  grain。〃　At　Villeneuve…　le…Roi；　writes　the　mayor；　〃the　rye　of　the　two
  lots　last　sent　is　so　black　and　poor　that　it　cannot　be　retailed
  without　wheat。〃　At　Sens　the　barley　〃tastes　musty〃　to　such　an　extent
  that　buyers　of　it　throw　the　detestable　bread；　which　it　makes　in　the
  face　of　the　sub…delegate。　　At　Chevreuse　the　barley　has　sprouted　and
  smells　bad；　the　〃　poor　wretches；〃　says　an　employee；　〃must　be　hard
  pressed　with　hunger　to　put　up　with　it。〃　At　Fontainebleau　〃the
  barley；　half　eaten　away；　produces　more　bran　than　flour；　and　to　make
  bread　of　it；　one　is　obliged　to　work　it　over　several　times。〃　This
  bread；　such　as　it　is；　is　an　object　of　savage　greed；　〃it　has　come　to
  this；　that　it　is　impossible　to　distribute　it　except　through
  wickets。〃　And　those　who　thus　obtain　their　ration；　〃are　often
  attacked　on　the　road　and　robbed　of　it　by　the　more　vigorous　of　the
  famished　people。〃　At　Nangis　〃the　magistrates　prohibit　the　same
  person　from　buying　more　than　two　bushels　in　the　same　market。〃　In
  short；　provisions　are　so　scarce　that　there　is　a　difficulty　in
  feeding　the　soldiers；　the　minister　dispatches　two　letters　one　after
  another　to　order　the　cutting　down　of　250；000　bushels　of　rye　before
  the　harvest＇6＇。　　Paris　thus；　in　a　perfect　state　of　tranquility；
  appears　like　a　famished　city　put　on　rations　at　the　end　of　a　long
  siege；　and　the　dearth　will　not　be　greater　nor　the　food　worse　in
  December　1870；　than　in　July　1789。
  〃The　nearer　the　14th　of　July　approached；〃　says　an　eyewitness；＇7＇
  〃the　more　did　the　dearth　increase。〃　Every　baker's　shop　was
  surrounded　by　a　crowd；　to　which　bread　was　distributed　with　the　most
  grudging　economy。　　This　bread　was　generally　blackish；　earthy；　and
  bitter；　producing　inflammation　of　the　throat　and　pain　in　the　bowels。
  I　have　seen　flour　of　detestable　quality　at　the　military　school　and
  at　other　depots。　　I　have　seen　portions　of　it　yellow　in　color；　with
  an　offensive　smell；　some　forming　blocks　so　hard　that　they　had　to　be
  broken　into　fragments　by　repeated　blows　of　a　hatchet。　　For　my　own
  part；　wearied　with　the　difficulty　of　procuring　this　poor　bread；　and
  disgusted　with　that　offered　to　me　at　the　tables　d'h？te；　I　avoided
  this　kind　of　food　altogether。　　In　the　evening　I　went　to　the　Café　du
  Caveau；　where；　fortunately；　they　were　kind　enough　to　reserve　for　me
  two　of　those　rolls　which　are　called　flutes；　and　this　is　the　only
  bread　I　have　eaten　for　a　week　at　a　time。〃
  But　this　resource　is　only　for　the　rich。　　As　for　the　people；　to　get
  bread　fit　for　dogs；　they　must　stand　in　a　line　for　hours。　　And　here
  they　fight　for　it；　〃they　snatch　food　from　one　another。〃　There　is　no
  more　work　to　be　had；　〃the　work…rooms　are　deserted；〃　often；　after
  waiting　a　whole　day；　the　workman　returns　home　empty…handed。　　When　he
  does　bring　back　a　four…pound　loaf　it　costs　him　3　francs　12　sous；
  that　is；　12　sous　for　the　bread；　and　3　francs　for　the　lost　day。　　In
  this　long　line　of　unemployed；　excited　men；　swaying　to　and　fro　before
  the　shop…door；　dark　thoughts　are　fermenting：　〃if　the　bakers　find　no
  flour　to…night　to　bake　with；　we　shall　have　nothing　to　eat　to…
  morrow。〃　An　appalling　idea；　　in　presence　of　which　the　whole　power
  of　the　Government　is　not　too　strong；　for　to　keep　order　in　the　midst
  of　famine　nothing　avails　but　the　sight　of　an　armed　force；　palpable
  and　threatening。　　Under　Louis　XIV　and　Louis　XV　there　had　been　even
  greater　hunger　and　misery；　but　the　outbreaks；　which　were　roughly　and
  promptly　put　down；　were　only　partial　and　passing　disorders。　　Some
  rioters　were　at　once　hung；　and　others　were　sent　to　the　galleys。　　The
  peasant　or　the　workman；　convinced　of　his　impotence；　at　once　returned
  to　his　stall　or　his　plow。　　When　a　wall　is　too　high　one　does　not　even
  think　of　scaling　it。　　　But　now　the　wall　is　cracking　　all　its
  custodians；　the　clergy；　the　nobles；　the　Third…Estate；　men　of
  letters；　the　politicians；　and　even　the　Government　itself；　making　the
  breach　wider。　　The　wretched；　for　the　first　time；　discover　an　issue：
  they　dash　through　it；　at　first　in　driblets；　then　in　a　mass；　and
  rebellion　becomes　as　universal　as　resignation　was　in　the　past。
  II。
  Expectations　the　second　cause。　　…　Separation　and　laxity　of　the
  administrative　forces。　　…　Investigations　of　local　assemblies。　　…　The
  people　become　aware　of　their　condition。　　…　Convocation　of　the
  States…General。　　…　Hope　is　born。　　The　coincidence　of　early
  Assemblies　with　early　difficulties。
  It　is　just　through　this　breach　that　hope　steals　like　a　beam　of
  light；　and　gradually　finds　its　way　down　to　the　depths　below。　　For
  the　last　fifty　years　it　has　been　rising；　and　its　rays；　which　first
  illuminated　the　upper　class　in　their　splendid　apartments　in　the
  first　story；　and　next　the　middle　class　in　their　entresol　and　on　the
  ground　floor。　　They　have　now　for　two　years　penetrated　to　the　cellars
  where　the　people　toil；　and　even　to　the　deep　sinks　and　obscure
  corners　where　rogues　and　vagabonds　and　malefactors；　a　foul　and
  swarming　herd；　crowd　and　hide　themselves　from　the　persecution　of　the
  law。　　　To　the　first　two　provincial　assemblies　instituted　by　Necker
  in　1778　and　1779；　Loménie　de　Brienne　has　in　1787　just　added　nineteen
  others；　under　each　of　these　are　assemblies　of　the　arrondissement；
  under　each　assembly　of　the　arrondissement　are　parish　assemblies＇8＇。
  Thus　the　whole　machinery　of　administration　has　been　changed。　　It　is
  the　new　assemblies　which　assess　the　taxes　and　superintend　their
  collection；　which　determine　upon　and　direct　all　public　works；　and
  which　form　the　court　of　final　appeal　in　regard　to　matters　in
  dispute。　　The　intendant；　the　sub…delegate；　the　elected
  representative＇9＇；　thus　lose　three…quarters　of　their　authority。
  Conflicts　arise；　consequently；　between　rival　powers　whose　frontiers
  are　not　clearly　defined；　command　shifts　about；　and　obedience　is
  diminished。　　The　subject　no　longer　feels　on　his　shoulders　the
  commanding　weight　of　the　one　hand　which；　without　possibility　of
  interference　or　resistance；　held　him　in；　urged　him　forward；　and　made
  him　move　on。　　Meanwhile；　in　each　assembly　of　the　parish
  arrondissement；　and　even　of　the　province；　plebeians；　〃husband…
  men；〃＇10＇　and　often　common　farmers；　sit　by　the　side　of　lords　and
  prelates。　　They　listen　to　and　remember　the　vast　figure　of　the　taxes
  which　are　paid　exclusively；　or　almost　exclusively；　by　them　　the
  taille　and　its　accessories；　the　poll…tax　and　road　dues；　and
  assuredly　on　their　return　home　they　talk　all　this　over　with　their
  neighbor。　　These　figures　are　all　printed；　the　village　attorney
  discusses　the　matter　with　his　clients；　the　artisans　and　rustics；　on
  Sunday　as　they　leave　the　mass；　or　in　the　evening　in　the　large　public
  room　of　the　tavern。　　These　little　gatherings；　moreover；　are
  sanctioned；　encouraged　by　the　powers　above。　　In　the　earliest　days　of
  1788　the　provincial　assemblies　order　a　board　of　inquiry　to　be　held
  by　the　syndics　and　inhabitants　of　each　parish。　　Knowledge　is　wanted
  in　detail　of　their　grievances。　　What　part　of　the　revenue　is
  chargeable　to　each　impost？　What　must　the　cultivator　pay　and　how　much
  does　he　suffer？　How　many　privileged　persons　there　are　in　the　parish；
  what　is　the　amount　of　their　fortune；　are　they　residents；　and　what
  their　exemptions　amount　to？　In　replying；　the　attorney　who　holds　the
  pen；　names　and　points　out　with　his　finger　each　privileged
  individual；　criticizes　his　way　of　living；　and　estimates　his　fortune；
  calculates　the　injury　done　to　the　village　by　his　immunities；
  inveighs　against　the　taxes　and　the　tax…collectors。　　On　leaving　these
  assemblies　the　villager　broods　over　what　he　has　just　heard。　　He　sees
  his　grievances　no　longer　singly　as　before；　but　in　mass；　and　coupled
  with　the　enormity　of　evils　under　which　his　fellows　suffer。　　Besides
  this；　they　begin　to　disentangle　the　causes　of　their　misery：　the　King
  is　good　　why　then　do　his　collectors　take　so　much　of　our　money？
  This　or　that　canon　or　nobleman　is　not　unkind　　why　then　do　they
  make　us　pay　in　their　place？　　Imagine　that　a　sudden　gleam　of　reason
  should　allow　a　beast　of　burden　to　comprehend　the　contrast　between
  the　species　of　horse　and　mankind。　　Imagine；　if　you　can；　what　its
  first　ideas　would　be　in　relation　to　the　coachmen　and　drivers　who
  bridle　and　whip　it　and　again　in　re