these　gentlemen　were　in　favour　of　leaving　to　a　free　contract；
  entered　into　by　the　manorial　lord　and　his　former　serfs；　the
  difficult　task　of　settling　their　future　relations。　It　was　in　the
  house　of　Schouvalov　that　the　discontented　delegates　regularly
  assembled；　it　was　there　that　they　drew　up　this　protest　against
  the　action　of　the　central　committee　and　the　so…called
  〃encroachments　of　the　bureaucracy。〃　Their　appeal；　made　in　the
  form　of　a　pamphlet；　published　in　Leipsig；　and　addressed　to　the
  new　delegates　summoned　to　Petersburg　from　the　provinces　not
  hitherto　represented；　found　a　ready　hearing；　and　the　Government
  encountered　in　these　new　helpers　even　a　larger　amount　of　mistrust
  and　ill…will　than　that　already　shown　by　their　predecessors。
  This　time　the　opposition　of　the　nobility　was　of　much　greater
  consequence。　General　Rostovzov；　whose　influence　over　the　Czar　was
  very　great；　died　suddenly；　before　the　completion　of　the　work
  entrusted　to　his　care；　and　Count　Panin；　an　avowed　foe　to　the
  action　of　the　committee；　became　its　President。　He　did　his　best　to
  induce　the　members　to　abandon　their　former　decision；　and　it　is
  only　to　the　firmness　of　character　shown　by　men　like　Nicholas
  Milutine；　that　we　are　indebted　for　the　strict　maintenance　of　the
  general　outlines　of　the　form　already　elaborated。　Finding　himself
  powerless　to　change　the　decisions　of　the　committee；　Panin　tried
  to　arouse　some　opposition　to　the　scheme　published　by　it；　among
  the　ranks　of　that　general　committee　of　which　the　committee　for
  the　elaboration　of　the　law　of　emancipation　was　but　a　section。　He
  tried　to　achieve　the　same　ends　in　the　Council　of　State；　where　the
  scheme　of　the　new　law　had　finally　to　be　discussed。　Happily　the
  time　allowed　for　the　debates　was　very　limited；　as　the　Government
  insisted　on　the　immediate　realisation　of　the　long…promised
  〃liberty。〃　They　lasted　in　the　general　committee　but　a　few　months；
  while　in　the　Council　of　State　they　were　limited　to　a　fortnight。
  It　is　due　to　this　fact　that　neither　of　the　two　boards　introduced
  very　extensive　amendments　in　the　emancipation　law。　Those　they　did
  make　were　all　in　favour　of　the　nobility。　The　most　mischievous
  consisted　in　the　considerable　diminution　of　the　maximum　and
  minimum　shares　accorded　to　the　peasant；　and　in　the　resolution
  that　no　rights　would　be　recognised　as　belonging　to　the　villagers
  in　the　common　pastures　of　the　manor。　The　interests　of　the
  peasants　were　also　sacrificed　in　the　permission　which　was　given
  to　the　landlords　to　diminish　the　shares　of　the　peasants；　on　the
  condition　of　renouncing　all　remuneration　for　the　ground　which
  they　ceded。　In　all　these　measures　the　demands　of　the　nobles　were
  complied　with。
  But　the　great　ends　at　which　the　reformers　aimed；　the
  liberation；　that　is　to　say；　of　the　peasant　from　all　personal
  dependence　on　the　manorial　lord；　and　the　securing　to　him　the
  right　of　possessing　land　in　common；　were　nevertheless　attained。
  The　law　of　February　19；　1861；　was　the　beginning　of　a　new　era
  an　era　of　democratic　development；　as　well　as　of　economic　and
  social　growth；　for　the　immense　Empire　of　the　Czars。　For　there　is
  no　doubt　about　the　vast　influence　which　the　law　of　1861　has
  exercised　in　all　directions。　It　is　that　which　made　more　than
  twenty　millions　of　people　at　once　the　free　disposers　of　their　own
  destinies　and　the　communistic　owners　of　the　land。　Villein
  services；　rents　in　kind　and　in　money；　feudal　monopolies；　and
  manorial　jurisdiction；　ceased　to　exist；　and　the　peasant　became
  the　member　of　a　self…governing　body；　or　the　Mir。　The　ideas　of
  social　justice　and　of　equality　before　the　law　　ideas　hitherto
  cherished　but　by　a　few　dreamers　such　as　Radischev　and　Herzen；　or
  revolutionists　like　those　so…called　〃Decembrists；〃　who　organised
  the　rebellion　of　December　24；　1825　　made　their　triumphant　entry
  into　the　Russian　world；　working　a　complete　change　in　the
  organisation　of　public　schools；　admitting　the　son　of　the　peasant
  to　sit　side　by　side　with　the　son　of　the　nobleman　and　the　merchant
  in　the　same　grammar　school　and　the　same　university；
  revolutionising　both　official　circles　and　the　drawing…room；
  admitting　to　both　persons　of　low。　birth　but　high　education。
  The　emancipation　of　the　serf　certainly　was　not　carried　out
  without　some　loss　to　the　land…owning　gentry；　but　the　squire　soon
  recovered　from　the　state　into　which　he　was　brought　by　his
  inexperience　in　the　management　of　his　estate　without　the　help　of
  unpaid　servants。　Capital　was　invested　in　land；　agricultural
  machines　were　introduced；　the　yearly　income　began　to　rise
  rapidly；　and　with　it　the　value　of　the　land　was　augmented。　It　was
  partly　enhanced　by　the　fact　that　it　was　thrown　open　to　the　free
  purchase　of　all　classes　of　society；　while　previous　to　the　reform
  the　higher　class　alone　was　entitled　to　own　it。　Instead　of
  abandoning　the　tillage　of　the　fields；　according　to　the
  expectation　of　some　pessimists；　the　liberated　serf　soon　became
  the　regular　farmer　of　the　lands　possessed　by　the　gentry；　and
  entire　village　communities　have　been　seen　during　these　last　few
  years　renting；　under　conditions　of　mutual　responsibility；　the
  land　of　a　neighbouring　estate。
  If　we　investigate　the　indirect　results　of　the　great　reform
  accomplished　by　the　Emperor　Alexander；　we　are　first　struck　by　the
  fact　that　it　involved　the　necessity　of　a　complete　change　in
  provincial　administration。　Justice　and　police　had　hitherto　been
  in　the　hands　of　persons　elected　by　the　nobility。　This　could　no
  longer　be　tolerated　the　moment　the　serf　was　liberated　from　his
  previous　subjection　to　the　noble　and　squire。　A　system　of
  provincial　self…government；　based　on　the　principle　of
  representation　of　the　whole　land…owning　class；　both　private
  proprietors　and　those　possessing　land　in　common；　was　introduced
  in　its　stead。　The　organization　of　justice　was　completely　changed；
  learned　jurists　occupying　the　place　of　the　ignorant　magistrates
  of　old　who　had　been　appointed　by　the　provincial　gentry。　The
  people；　as　members　of　juries；　were　admitted　to　a　share　in　the
  exercise　of　criminal　justice。　The　transformation　of　the　medieval
  State　into　one　that　answered　to　the　requirements　of　modern
  civilisation　would　have　been　completed　if　the　Liberator　of
  millions　had　not　been　slaughtered　on　the　very　day　on　which　he　had
  undertaken　to　give　a　constitution　to　his　people。
  Years　of　violent　reaction　have　followed。　The　feudal　party；
  whose　secret　designs　had　been　defeated　by　the　mode　in　which
  emancipation　had　been　effected；　again　got　the　upper　hand；　and
  modern　Russia　now　looks　back　to　the　period　of　1861　as　the　golden
  age　of　Russian　Liberalism。　It　is　in　the　work　of　the　men　who　were
  directly　engaged　in　carrying　out　the　great　reform　that　Russian
  Liberals　seek　consolation　and　help；　and　the　Nineteenth　of
  February　has　become　for　them　a　day　of　general　and　of　grateful
  commemoration。
  NOTES：
  1。　Compare　V。　Somevsky；　〃The　Peasant　Question　in　Russia　during
  the　Eighteenth　and　Nineteenth　Century〃；　Petersburg；　1888。
  2。　〃The　Village　from　Petersburg　to　Novgorod。〃
  3。　See　his　work；　entitled　〃The　Fall　of　Bondage　in　Russia；〃
  Petersburg；　1883。