the　landlords　the　right　to　liberate　their　serfs；　and　even　to
  endow　them　with　shares　in　the　open　fields　if　they　paid　for　them。
  In　1803　this　law　was　passed；　and　47；000　serfs　were　soon　after
  enfranchised；　and　became　a　separate　class　under　the　name　of　the
  〃free　agriculturists。〃　Sixteen　years　later　（in　1819）　the
  enfranchisement　of　the　serf　became　an　accomplished　fact　in　the
  three　Baltic　provinces；　the　peasant　obtaining　the　free　disposal
  of　his　person　on　condition　of　abandoning　to　his　landlord　the
  parcels　of　ground　previously　in　his　possession。　This　reform　was
  accomplished　in　the　same　manner　as　that　carried　out　in　1812　by
  Napoleon　in　the　Kingdom　of　Poland。　In　the　thoroughly　Russian
  provinces　no　direct　measures　were　at　this　time　taken　to　abolish
  the　legal　servitude　of　the　peasant；　but　the　question　was　more
  than　once　debated　in　private　circles　and　by　learned　bodies。　In
  the　year　1812；　for　instance；　the　Petersburg　Society　of　Political
  Economists　declared　that　it　would　give　2000　roubles　to　the　author
  of　the　best　treatise　on　the　question　of　the　relative　advantages
  of　free　and　servile　labour　in　agriculture。　This　question　by
  itself　shows　the　influence　which　Adam　Smith's　〃Wealth　of
  Nations；〃　which　had　been　translated　into　Russian　in　1803；　was
  beginning　to　exercise　on　Russian　thought。　Nine　treatises　were
  forwarded　to　the　Society；　of　which　three　only　were　in　favour　of
  the　further　maintenance　of　servile　labour。　But　the　greater　number
  expressed　the　opinion　that　the　enfranchisement　of　the　serf；
  provided　that　he　was　allowed　to　keep　the　land　he　occupied；　would
  be　of　great　advantage　to　the　landlord　himself。　This　idea；　in
  conformity　to　which　serfdom　had　been　abolished　in　the　Baltic
  provinces；　was　the　expression　of　a　fact　quite　familiar　to　the
  student　of　economic　history。　The　work　of　an　enslaved　labourer　is
  never　so　productive　as　that　of　a　free　labourer。　So　long　as　rent
  is　low；　as　certainly　was　the　case　in　Russia　in　past　centuries；
  the　work　of　the　serf　is　by　no　means　fairly　recompensed　by　the
  land　he　owns。　But　in　the　first　quarter　of　the　nineteenth　century；
  when　Russia　began　to　be　considered　as　the　granary　of　Europe；　on
  account　of　the　vast　exports　of　wheat　from　her　ports；　rent　rapidly
  rose；　and　this　rise　produced　a　complete　change　in　the　relative
  value　of　servile　work　and　the　land　which　was　in　the　possession　of
  the　peasant。
  The　question　put　by　the　Society　of　Political　Economists　could
  not；　therefore；　possibly　have　received　any　other　answer　than　that
  given　to　it　by　the　majority　of　the　authors　who　sent　in　papers　to
  the　Society。　Serfdom　was　rapidly　becoming　a　burden　on　the
  manorial　lords　themselves；　as　many　of　them　began　to　be　conscious。
  The　barons　of　the　Baltic　shore　were　the　first　to　understand　the
  advantage　which　the　liberation　of　the　serf；　followed　by　a
  resumption　of　the　ground　he　owned；　would　have　on　their　class
  interests。　The　nobility　of　Toula　and　Riasan；　as　well　as　that　of
  Dinabourg；　Petersburg；　and　Czarskoie　Selo；　seemed　also　to　become
  conscious　of　this　fact；　for　they　petitioned　the　Emperor　Nicholas
  to　establish　local　committees　who　might　prepare　the　outlines　of　a
  new　emancipation　act。　Among　the　nobles　immediately　surrounding
  the　Czar；　Prince　Mentchikov　expressed　his　opinion　of　the
  desirability　and　advantage　of　freeing　the　peasant　and　at　the　same
  time　of　enriching　the　landlord　by　leaving　in　his　hands　all　those
  shares　in　the　common　ground　which　had　been　held　by　the　peasants。
  The　interests　of　the　nobility　certainly　required　the
  establishment　of　a　class　similar　to　that　of　the　English
  labourers；　but　the　peasants　were　naturally　averse　to　any　change
  which　would　lessen　their　hold　on　the　soil。　In　1812　a　peasant
  rising　took　place　in　the　Government　of　Pensa；　the　revolted　serfs
  expressing　their　wants　by　the　old　motto　〃liberty　and　Land。〃　In
  1826　again　the　same　motto　was　the　watchword　of　another　rising；
  this　time　provoked　by　a　rumour　that　land　and　liberty　would
  shortly　be　secured　to　the　serfs。
  Under　the　influence　of　this　clear　expression　of　the　people's
  wants；　the　Government　of　Nicholas　abandoned　all　idea　of
  emancipation　which　was　not　to　be　followed　by　the　endowment　of　the
  peasant　with　land。　Not　daring；　as　he　openly　acknowledged　to　lay
  hands　on　the　sacred　rights　of　private　property　by　liberating　the
  serfs　and　making　them　free　owners　of　the　soil；　Nicholas　proposed
  to　alter　the　existing　condition　of　the　serf　by　making　him　a　sort
  of　copyholder　or　perpetual　tenant　of　small　parcels　of　manorial
  ground；　on　condition　of　the　payment　of　perpetual　rent。　In　the
  Polish　provinces；　such　copyhold　tenures；　very　like　the　French
  censives；　were　already　in　existence。　The　Government；　therefore；
  only　extended　a　system　which　already　existed　when；　in　1842；　they
  ordered　the　preparation　in　each　manor　of　a　sort　of　registry；
  called　〃inventory；〃　in　which　the　amount　of　payments　in　kind　and
  money；　made　by　the　serfs　to　the　landlord；　were　to　be　inscribed；
  in　order　that　in　future　no　other　levies　might　be　made。
  Neither　of　these　two　schemes　for　amending　the　untenable
  position　of　the　serf　was　good　enough　to　obtain　the　approbation　of
  those　to　whom；　at　this　time；　actually　belonged　the　guidance　of
  pubic　opinion。　It　will　be　to　the　eternal　honour　of　the　Russian
  press　that　it　constantly　preached　in　favour　of　a　reform　which
  would　at　once　liberate　the　serf　and　make　him　legal　owner　of　the
  shares　of　manorial　ground　which　were　already　in　his　possession。
  Among　the　persons　directly　implicated　in　the　insurrectionary
  movement　of　the　24th　of　December　1825；　two；　Pestel　and
  Jakoushkine；　had　already　declared　themselves　to　be　supporters　of
  such　a　scheme。
  The　diffusion　of　socialist　ideas　greatly　contributed　to
  strengthen　among　the　literary　class　the　persuasion　that　it　would
  be　impossible　to　liberate　the　serf　otherwise　than　by　endowing　him
  with　land。　The　well…known　plot　which　was　organised　by
  Petroschevsky；　among　its　other　aims；　had　that　of　allotting
  parcels　of　ground　to　the　liberated　serf。　The　great　exile　Herzen；
  in　a　Russian　newspaper　then　published　in　London；　openly　expressed
  his　opinion　that　the　common　ownership　of　the　land　should　be
  retained　in　the　hands　of　the　enfranchised　peasant；　and　among　the
  many　schemes　of　emancipation；　which　circulated　in　the　form　of
  manuscript　during　the　latter　part　of　Nicholas's　reign；　more　than
  one　advocated　the　necessity　of　retaining　the　ancient　ties　which
  bound　the　peasant　to　the　soil　by　making　him　the　legal　owner　of
  his　share　in　the　open　fields。
  The　〃providential　mission〃　of　the　Czar　Alexander　the　Second
  was　therefore　disclosed　in　a　state　of　society　which　was　already
  prepared　to　accept　the　general　outlines　of　a　social　reform；　the
  end　of　which　would　be　not　only　to　liberate；　but　also　to　enrich；
  the　peasant。　As　soon　as　Alexander　ascended　the　throne　rumours
  began　to　be　circulated　as　to　the　approaching　abolition　of
  serfdom。　The　unexpected　death　of　his　father　placed　him　on　the
  throne　at　a　moment　of　great　and　general　depression；　occasioned　by
  the　defeat　of　the　Russian　military　forces　under　the　walls　of
  Sebastopol。　The　young　Emperor　made　an　eloquent　appeal　to　the
  patriotism　of　his　subjects；　inviting　them　to　increase　the　means
  of　defence　by　a　voluntary　levy　of　a　kind　of　militia；　known　under
  the　name　of　Opolchenie。　This　measure　strengthened　the　belief　in
  the　nearness　of　social　and　political　reforms。　The　peasants；
  enrolled　in　the　self…raised　regiments　of　the　militia；　began　to
  think　that　their　more　or　less　voluntary　sacrifice　of　life　and
  fortune　would　he　rewarded　by　a　complete　liberation　from　the
  ignominious　bonds　of　personal　servitude。　Crowds　of　serfs　asked　to
  be　admitted　into　the　militia；　expecting　to　attain　freedom　in　this
  way。
  When　the　Peace　of　Paris　was　signed；　and　the　peasants　of　the
  militia　were　ordered　to　return　to　their　daily　tasks；　they　openly
  expressed　their　belief　that　the　charters　by　which　the　Emperor　had
  liberated　them　from　bondage　were　concealed　by　their　landlords。
  These　rumours　produced　great　excitement。　The　years　1854　and　1855
  are　notorious　for　a　series　of　local　rebellions。　These
  insurrections　took　place　partly　on　the　shores　of　the　Volga；　which
  had　already　felt；　in　the　time　of　Catherine　the　Second；　the
  horrors　of　a　jacquerie；　partly　in　some　Central　and　South…western
  Governments；　such　as　Vladimir；　Riasan；　Tambov；　Pensa；　Voronej；
  and　Kiev。　These　revolutionary　movements；　directed　exclusively
  against　the　feudal　aristocracy；　produced　a　great　impression　on
  the　Czar　Alexander。　Addressing　the　chiefs　of　the　Moscovite
  nobility　（the　so…called　marshals）；　the　Czar　showed　his
  appreciation　of　the　wants　of　the　time　by　the　following　words：
  〃Gentlemen；　you　surely　understand　yourselves　the　impossibility　of
  retaining；　without　alteration　and　change；　the　existing　mode　of
  owning　souls　＇a　usual　expression；　the　meaning　of　which　is　the
  right　to　the　unpaid　work　of　the　serfs＇。　It　is　better　to　abolish
  personal　servitude　by　legislative　measures　than　to　see　it
  abolished　by　a　movement　from　below。　I　ask　you　to　consider　such
  measures　as　might　forward　this　end。〃　These　promising　words；
  although　followed　by　a　direct　declaration　that　serfdom　was　not　to
  be　abolished　at　once；　strengthened　the　expectations　of　those　who
  thought　that　the　new　reign　would　inaugurat