Modern　Customs　and　Ancient　Laws　of　Russia
  by　Maxime　Kovalevsky
  Lecture　6
  The　Origin；　Growth；　and　Abolition　of　Personal　Servitude　in　Russia
  An　account　of　the　origin；　growth；　and　abolition　of　serfdom　in
  Russia　might　easily　be　made　to　fill　volumes；　so　vast　and　so
  various　are　the　materials　on　which　the　study　of　it　is　based。　But
  for　the　purpose　now　in　view；　that　of　bringing　before　your　notice
  the　general　conclusion　to　which　Russian　historians　and　legists
  have　come　as　to　the　social　development　of　their　country；　perhaps
  a　single　lecture　will　suffice。　In　it　I　cannot　pretend　to　do　more
  than　present　to　you　those　aspects　of　the　subject　on　which　the
  minds　of　Russian　scholars　have　been　specially　fixed　of　late
  years。
  Among　the　first　to　be　considered　is　the　origin　of　that　system
  of　personal　servitude　and　bondage　to　the　land　in　which　the
  Russian　peasant　lived　for　centuries。　An　opinion　long　prevailed
  that　this　system　was　due　solely　to　the　action　of　the　State；
  which；　at　the　end　of　the　sixteenth　century；　abolished　the　freedom
  of　migration　previously　enjoyed　by　the　Russian　peasant　and　bound
  him　for　ever　to　the　soil。　This　opinion；　which　would　have　made
  Russian　serfdom　an　institution　quite　apart　from　that　of　the
  serfdom　of　the　Western　States　of　Europe；　has　been　happily
  abandoned；　and　consequently　its　development　becomes　the　more
  interesting；　in　so　far　as　it　discloses　the　action　of　those
  economic　and　social　forces　which　produced　the　personal　and　real
  servitude　of　the　so…called　villein　all　over　Europe。
  Whilst　stating　the　most　important　facts　in　the　history　of
  Russian　serfdom；　I　shall　constantly　keep　in　view　their　analogy
  with　those　presented　by　the　history　of　English　or　French
  villenage。　By　so　doing　I　hope　to　render　the　natural　evolution　of
  Russian　serfdom　the　more　easily　understood。
  The　first　point　to　which　I　desire　to　call　your　attention　is
  the　social　freedom　enjoyed　by　the　Russian　peasant　in　the　earlier
  portion　of　medieval　history。　The　peasant；　then　known　by　the　name
  of　smerd　　from　the　verb　smerdet；　to　have　a　bad　smell　　was　as
  free　to　dispose　of　his　person　and　property；　as　was　the
  Anglo…Saxon　ceorl；　or　the　old　German　markgenosse。　He　had　the
  right　to　appear　as　a　witness　in　Courts　of　Justice；　both　in　civil
  and　in　criminal　actions；　he　enjoyed　the　right　of　inheriting　　a
  right；　however；　which　was　somewhat　limited　by　the　prevalence　of
  family　communism　　and　no　one　could　prevent　him　from　engaging
  his　services　to　any　landlord　for　as　many　years　as　he　liked；　and
  on　terms　settled　by　contract。　Lack　of　means　to　buy　a　plough　and
  the　cattle　which　he　needed　for　tilling　the　ground　very　often　led
  the　free　peasant　to　get　them　from　his　landlord　on　condition　that
  every　year　he　ploughed　and　harrowed　the　fields　of　his　creditor。
  It　is　in　this　way　that　an　economic　dependence　was　first
  established　between　two　persons　equally　free；　equally　in
  possession　of　the　soil；　but　disposing　the　one　of　a　larger；　the
  other　of　a　smaller　capital。　The　name　under　which　the　voluntary
  serf　is　known　to　the　Pravda；　the　first　legal　code　of　Russia；　is
  that　of　roleini　zakoup；　this　term　signifies　a　person　who　has
  borrowed　money　on　condition　of　performing　the　work　of　ploughing
  （ralo　means　the　plough）　so　long　as　his　debt　remains　unpaid。
  The　frequent　want　of　the　simplest　agricultural　implements；
  which　Magna　Charta　designates　as　con　tenementum；　was　also
  probably　the　chief　cause；　which　induced　more　than　one　Russian
  peasant　to　prefer　the　condition　of　a　sort　of　French　metayer　or
  petty　farmer；　whose　rent；　paid　in　kind；　amounts　to　a　fixed
  proportion　of　the　yearly　produce；　to　that　of　a　free　shareholder
  in　the　open　fields　and　village　common。　The　almost　universal
  existence　of　metayage；　or　farming　on　the　system　of　half…profits；
  is　now　generally　recognised。　Thorold　Rogers　has　proved　its
  existence　in　medieval　England；　and　in　France　and　Italy　this
  system　is　still　found。　In　saying　this；　I　have　particularly　in
  view　the　French　champart　and　the　mezzeria　of　Tuscany。
  The　prevalence　in　ancient　Russia　of　the　same　rude　and
  elementary　mode　of　farming　is　established　by　numerous　charters
  and　contracts；　some　of　which　are　as　late　as　the　end　of　the
  seventeenth　century；　whilst　others　go　back　to　the　beginning　of
  the　sixteenth。　It　would　appear　that　previous　to　that　date　such
  contracts　were　not　put　into　writing；　apparently　on　account　of　the
  small　diffusion　of　knowledge。　We　are　therefore　reduced　to　the
  necessity　of　presuming　the　existence　of　these　contracts　solely
  because　the　intrinsic　causes　which　brought　them　into　existence　in
  the　sixteenth　century　had　been　in　operation　for　hundreds　of　years
  before。　The　peasant；　on　entering　into　such　a　contract；　took　upon
  himself　the　obligation　of　paying　back　in　the　course　of　time　the
  money　which　had　been　lent　to　him　　the　〃serebro；〃　silver；
  according　to　the　expression　used　in　contemporary　documents。　From
  the　name　of　the　capital　intrusted　to　them　（the　serebro）　arose　the
  surname　of　serebrenik；　which　may　be　translated　silver…men；　under
  which　peasants　settled　on　a　manor　were　generally　known；　their
  other　being　polovnik；　or　men　paying　half　of　their　yearly　produce
  to　the　lord；　although　as　a　rule　their　payments　did　not　amount　to
  more　than　a　quarter。　So　long　as　his　debt　remained　unpaid　the
  metayer　was　obliged　to　remunerate　the　landlord　by　villein　service
  performed　on　the　demesne　lands　of　the　manor。　According　to　the
  German　writer　Herberstein；　who　visited　Russia　in　the　seventeenth
  century；　the　agricultural　labour　which　the　serebrenik　performed
  for　the　lord　very　often　amounted　each　week　to　a　sixdays'　service；
  at　any　rate　in　summer。　Contracts　still　preserved　also　speak　of
  other　obligations　of　the　serebrenik；　very　like　those　of　the
  medieval　English　socman。　Such；　for　instance；　were　the　obligations
  of　cutting　wood　and　of　forwarding　it　on　their　own　carts　to　the
  manor…house；　and　of　paying　certain　dues　on　the　occasion　of　the
  marriage　of　the　peasant's　daughter。　I　need　not　insist　on　the
  similarity　which　this　last　custom　presents　to　the　medieval
  English　and　French　maritagium；　or　formariage；　so　evident　is　the
  likeness　between　them。　Custom　also　required　the　peasant　to　make
  certain　presents　to　his　lord　at　Christmas　and　Easter；　or　at　some
  other　yearly　festival；　such　for　instance　as　that　of　the
  Assumption　of　the　Blessed　Virgin。
  The　peasant　who　chose　to　settle　on　the　land　of　a　manorial
  lord　got　the　grant　of　a　homestead　in　addition　to　that　of　land；
  and　this　was　the　origin　of　a　sort　of　house…rent　called　the
  projivnoe；　which　as　a　rule　amounted　yearly　to　the　fourth　part　of
  the　value　of　the　homestead。
  As　to　the　land　ceded　by　the　landlord　to　the　settler　who
  wished　to　live　on　his　manor；　its　use　became　the　origin　of　another
  special　payment；　the　obrok；　which　represented　a　definite　amount
  of　agricultural　produce。　The　obrok　was　often　replied　by　the
  obligation　of　doing　certain　fixed　agricultural　labour　on　the
  demesne　land　of　the　manor。
  As　soon　as　the　peasant　had　repaid　the　money　borrowed　from　the
  manorial　lord；　and　had　discharged　all　the　payments　required　from
  him　for　the　use　of　his　land　and　homestead；　he　was　authorised　by
  custom　to　remove　wherever　he　liked；　of　course　giving　up　to　the
  squire　his　house　and　his　share　in　the　open　fields　of　the　manor。
  At　first　this　right　of　removal　could　be　exercised　at　any　period
  of　the　year；　but　this　being　found　prejudicial　to　the　agricultural
  interests　of　the　country　certain　fixed　periods　were　soon
  established；　at　which　alone　such　a　removal　was　allowed。　Usually
  the　end　of　harvest　was　fixed　as　the　time　when　new　arrangements
  could　be　entered　into　with　regard　to　future　agricultural　labour
  without　causing　any　loss　to　the　interests　of　the　landlord。　Not
  only　in　autumn；　however；　but　also　in　spring；　soon　after　Easter；
  manorial　lords　were　in　the　habit　of　permitting　the　establishment
  of　new　settlers　on　their　estates；　and　the　withdrawal　of　those
  peasants　who　expressed　a　desire　to　leave。
  The　first　Soudebnik；　the　legal　code　published　by　Ivan　III　in
  1497；　speaks　of　the　festival　of　Saint　George；　which　according　to
  the　Russian　calendar　falls　on　the　26th　of　November；　as　a　period
  at　which　all　removals　ought　to　take　place。　Those　peasants　who　had
  not　been　fortunate　enough　to　free　themselves　from　all　obligations
  to　the　manor　by　this　period　were　obliged　to　remain　another　year
  on　its　lands。　He　who；　was　unable　to　repay　the　lord　the　sum
  borrowed　was　reduced　to　the　same　condition　as　that　of　the
  insolvent　farmers　of　the　Roman　ager　publicus；　who；　according　to
  Fustel　de　Coulanges；　saw　their　arrears　of　debt　changed　into　a
  perpetual　rent　called　the　canon；　and　their　liberty　of　migration
  superseded　by　a　state　of　continual　bondage　to　the　land　they
  cultivated。　No　Russian　historian　has　shown　the　analogy　existing
  between　the　origin　of　the　Roman　colonatus　and　that　of　Russian
  serfdom　so　clearly　as　Mr　Kluchevsky；　the　eminent　professor　of
  Russian　history　in　the　University　of　Moscow。　It　is　to　him　that　we
  are　indebted　for　the　discovery　of　the　fact　that　centuries　before
  the　legal　and　general　abolition　of　the　right　of　free　migration　a
  considerable　number　of　peasants　had　thus　ceased　to　enjoy　that
  liberty。　Such　was　the　case　of　those　so…called　〃silver…men　from
  the