more　or　less　fortunate　enterprises　and　the　little　insignificant　incidents　which　no　one　would　trouble　to　avoid。　But　these　again　are　questions　to　which　there　is　no　solution；　and　we　will　not　pursue　them　further。
  CHAPTER　IV。　THE　ELBERFELD　HORSES
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  I　will　first　sum　up　as　briefly　as　possible；　for　who　so　may　still　be　ignorant　of　them；　the　facts　which　it　is　necessary　to　know　if　one　would　fully　understand　the　marvelous　story　of　the　Elberfeld　horses。　For　a　detailed　account；　I　can　refer　him　to　Herr　Karl　Krall's　remarkable　work；　Denkende　Tiere　（Leipsig；　1912）；　which　is　the　first　and　principal　source　of　information　amid　a　bibliography　that　is　already　assuming　considerable　dimensions。
  Some　twenty　years　ago　there　lived　in　Berlin　an　old　misanthrope　named　Wilhelm　von　Osten。　He　was　a　man　with　a　small　private　income；　a　little　eccentric　in　his　ways　and　obsessed　by　one　idea；　the　intelligence　of　animals。　He　began　by　undertaking　the　education　of　a　horse　that　gave　him　no　very　definite　results。　But；　in　1900；　he　became　the　owner　of　a　Russian　stallion　who；　under　the　name　of　Hans；　to　which　was　soon　added　the　Homeric　and　well…earned　prefix　of　Kluge；　or　Clever；　was　destined　to　upset　all　our　notions　of　animal　psychology　and　to　raise　questions　that　rank　among　the　most　unexpected　and　the　most　absorbing　problems　which　man　has　yet　encountered。
  Thanks　to　Von　Osten；　whose　patience；　contrary　to　what　one　might　think；　was　in　no　wise　angelic　but　resembled　rather　a　frenzied　obstinacy；　the　horse　made　rapid　and　extraordinary　progress。　This　progress　is　very　aptly　described　by　Professor　E。　Clarapede；　of　the　university　of　Geneva；　who　says；　in　his　excellent　monograph　on　the　Elberfeld　horses：
  〃After　making　him　familiar　with　various　common　ideas；　such　as　right；　left；　top；　bottom　and　so　on；　his　master　began　to　teach　him　arithmetic　by　the　intuitive　method。　Hans　was　brought　to　a　table　on　which　were　placed　first　one；　then　two；　then　several　small　skittles。　Von　Osten；　kneeling　beside　Hans；　uttered　the　corresponding　numbers；　at　the　same　time　making　him　strike　as　many　blows　with　his　hoof　as　there　were　skittles　on　the　table。　Before　long；　the　skittles　were　replaced　by　figures　written　on　a　blackboard。　The　results　were　astonishing。　The　horse　was　capable　not　only　of　counting　（that　is　to　say；　of　striking　as　many　blows　as　he　was　asked）；　but　also　of　himself　making　real　calculations；　of　solving　little　problems。　。　。　。
  〃But　Hans　could　do　more　than　mere　sums：　he　knew　how　to　read；　he　was　a　musician；　distinguishing　between　harmonious　and　dissonant　chords。　He　also　had　an　extraordinary　memory：　he　could　tell　the　date　of　each　day　of　the　current　week。　In　short；　he　got　through　all　the　tasks　which　an　intelligent　schoolboy　of　fourteen　is　able　to　perform。〃
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  The　rumour　of　these　curious　experiments　soon　spread；　and　visitors　flocked　to　the　little　stable…yard　in　which　Von　Osten　kept　his　singular　pupil　at　work。　The　newspapers　took　the　matter　up；　and　a　fierce　controversy　broke　forth　between　those　who　believed　in　the　genuineness　of　the　phenomenon　and　those　who　saw　no　more　in　it　than　a　barefaced　fraud。　A　scientific　committee　was　appointed　in　1904；　consisting　of　professors　of　psychology　and　physiology；　of　the　director　of　a　zoological　garden；　of　a　circus　manager　and　of　veterinary　surgeons　and　cavalry…officers。　The　committee　discovered　nothing　suspicious；　but　ventured　upon　no　explanation。　A　second　committee　was　then　appointed；　numbering　among　its　members　Herr　Oskar　Pfungst；　of　the　Berlin　psychological　laboratory。　Herr　Pfungst；　after　a　long　series　of　experiments；　drew　up　a　voluminous　and　crushing　report；　in　which　he　maintained　that　the　horse　was　gifted　with　no　intelligence；　that　it　did　not　recognize　either　letters　or　figures；　that　it　really　knew　neither　how　to　calculate　nor　how　to　count；　but　merely　obeyed　the　imperceptible；　infinitesimal　and　unconscious　signs　which　escaped　from　its　master。
  Public　opinion　veered　round　suddenly　and　completely。　People　felt　a　sort　of　half…cowardly　relief　at　beholding　the　prompt　collapse　of　a　miracle　which　was　threatening　to　throw　confusion　into　the　self　satisfied　little　fold　of　established　truths。　Poor　Von　Osten　protested　in　vain：　no　one　listened　to　him；　the　verdict　was　given。　He　never　recovered　from　this　official　blow；　he　became　the　laughing…stock　of　all　those　whom　he　had　at　first　astounded；　and　he　died；　lonely　and　embittered；　on　the　29th　of　June；　1909；　at　the　age　of　seventy…one。
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  But　he　left　a　disciple　whose　faith　had　not　been　shaken　by　the　general　defection。　A　well…to…do　Elberfeld　manufacturer；　Herr　Krall；　had　taken　a　great　interest　in　Von　Osten's　labours　and；　during　the　latter　years　of　the　old　man's　life；　had　eagerly　followed　and　even　on　occasion　directed　the　education　of　the　wonderful　stallion。　Von　Osten　left　Kluge　Hans　to　him　by　will；　on　his　own　side；　Krall　had　bought　two　Arab　stallions；　Mohammed　and　Zarif　whose　prowess　soon　surpassed　that　of　the　pioneer。　The　whole　question　was　reopened；　events　took　a　vigorous　and　decisive　turn　and；　instead　of　a　weary；　eccentric　old　man；　discouraged　almost　to　sullenness　and　with　no　weapons　for　the　struggle；　the　critics　of　the　miracle　found　themselves　faced　by　a　new　adversary；　young　and　high…spirited；　endowed　with　remarkable　scientific　instinct；　quick…witted；　scholarly　and　well　able　to　defend　himself。
  His　educational　methods　also　differ　materially　from　Von　Osten's。　It　was　a　strange　thing；　but　deep　down　in　the　rather　queer；　cross…grained　soul　of　the　old　enthusiast　there　had　grown　up　gradually　a　sort　of　hatred　for　his　four…legged　pupil。　He　felt　the　stallion's　proud　and　nervous　will　resisting　his　with　an　obstinacy　which　he　qualified　as　diabolical。　They　stood　up　to　each　other　like　two　enemies：　and　the　lessons　almost　assumed　the　form　of　a　tragic　and　secret　struggle　in　which　the　animal's　soul　rebelled　against　man's　domination。
  Krall；　on　the　other　hand；　adores　his　pupils；　and　this　atmosphere　of　affection　has　in　a　manner　of　speaking　humanized　them。　There　are　no　longer　those　sudden　movements　of　wild　panic　which　reveal　the　ancestral　dread　of　man　in　the　quietest　and　best…trained　horse。　He　talks　to　them　long　and　tenderly；　as　a　father　might　talk　to　his　children；　and　we　have　the　strange　feeling　that　they　listen　to　all　that　he　says　and　understand　it。　If　they　appear　not　to　grasp　an　explanation　or　a　demonstration；　he　will　begin　it　all　over　again；　analyze　it；　paraphrase　it　ten　times　in　succession；　with　the　patience　of　a　mother。　And　so　their　progress　has　been　incomparably　swifter　and　more　astounding　than　that　of　old　Hans。　Within　a　fortnight　of　the　first　lesson　Mohammed　did　simple　little　addition　and　subtraction　sums　quite　correctly。　He　had　learnt　to　distinguish　the　tens　from　the　units；　striking　the　latter　with　his　right　foot　and　the　former　with　his　left。　He　knew　the　meaning　of　the　symbols　plus　and　minus。　Four　days　later；　he　was　beginning　multiplication　and　division。　In　four　months'　time；　he　knew　how　to　extract　square　and　cubic　roots；　and；　soon　after；　he　learnt　to　spell　and　read　by　means　of　the　conventional　alphabet　devised　by　Krall。
  This　alphabet；　at　the　first　glance；　seems　rather　complicated。　For　that　matter；　it　is　only　a　makeshift；　but　how　could　one　find　anything　better？　The　unfortunate　horse；　who　is　almost　voiceless；　has　only　one　way　in　which　to　express　himself：　a　clumsy　hoof；　which　was　not　created　to　put　thought　into　words。　It　became　necessary；　therefore；　to　contrive；　as　in　table…turning；　a　special　alphabet；　in　which　each　letter　is　designated　by　a　certain　number　of　blows　struck　by　the　right　foot　and　the　left。　Here　is　the　copy　handed　to　visitors　at　Elberfeld　to　enable　them　to　follow　the　horse's　operations：
  1　　2　　3　　4　　5　　6　10　E　　N　　R　　S　　M　　C　20　A　　H　　L　　T　　A：　CH　30　I　　D　　G　　W　　J　SCH　40　O　　B　　F　　K　　O：　　50　U　　V　　Z　　P　　U：　　60　EI　AU　EU　X　　Q
  To　mark　the　letter　E；　for　instance；　the　stallion　will　strike　one　blow　with　his　left　foot　and　one　with　his　right；　for　the　letter　L；　two　blows　with　his　left　foot　and　three　with　his　right；　and　so　on。　The　horses　have　this　alphabet　so　deeply　imprinted　in　their　memory　that；　practically　speaking；　they　never　make　a　mistake；　and　they　strike　their　hoofs　so　quickly；　one　after　the　other；　that　at　first　one　has　some　difficulty　in　following　them。
  Mohammed　and　Zariffor　Zarif's　progress　was　almost　equal　to　that　of　his　fellow…pupil；　though　he　seems　a　little　less　gifted　from　the　standpoint　of　higher　mathematics…Mohammed　and　Zarif　in　this　way　reproduce　the　words　spoken　in　their　presence；　spell　the　names　of　their　visitors；　reply　to　questions　put　to　them　and　sometimes　make　little　observations；　little　personal　and　spontaneous　reflections　to　which　we　shall　return　presently。　They　have　created　for　their　own　use　an　inconceivably　fantastic　and　phonetic　system　of　spelling　which　they　stubbornly　refuse　to　relinquish　and　which　often　makes　their　writing　rather　difficult　to　read。　Deeming　most　of　the　vowels　useless；　they　keep　almost　exclusively　to　the　consonants；　thus　Zucker；　for　instance；　becomes　Z　K　R；　Pferd；　P　F　R　T；　or　F　R　T；　and　so　on。
  I　will　not　set　forth　in　detail　the　many　different　proofs　of　intelligence　lavished　by　the　singular　inhabitants　of　this　strange　stable。　They　are　not　only　first…class　calculators；　for　whom　the　most　repellent　fractions　and　roots　possess　hardly　any　secrets：　they　distinguish　sounds；