le　of　war　and　vengeance。
  After　returning　from　the　district　of　Koko　Nor　to　Mongolia　and　resting　a　few　days　at　the　Narabanchi　Monastery；　we　went　to　live　in　Uliassutai；　the　capital　of　Western　Outer　Mongolia。　　It　is　the　last　purely　Mongolian　town　to　the　west。　　In　Mongolia　there　are　but　three　purely　Mongolian　towns；　Urga；　Uliassutai　and　Ulankom。　　The　fourth　town；　Kobdo；　has　an　essentially　Chinese　character；　being　the　center　of　Chinese　administration　in　this　district　inhabited　by　the　wandering　tribes　only　nominally　recognizing　the　influence　of　either　Peking　or　Urga。　　In　Uliassutai　and　Ulankom；　besides　the　unlawful　Chinese　commissioners　and　troops；　there　were　stationed　Mongolian　governors　or　〃Saits；〃　appointed　by　the　decree　of　the　Living　Buddha。
  When　we　arrived　in　that　town；　we　were　at　once　in　the　sea　of　political　passions。　　The　Mongols　were　protesting　in　great　agitation　against　the　Chinese　policy　in　their　country；　the　Chinese　raged　and　demanded　from　the　Mongolians　the　payment　of　taxes　for　the　full　period　since　the　autonomy　of　Mongolia　had　been　forcibly　extracted　from　Peking；　Russian　colonists　who　had　years　before　settled　near　the　town　and　in　the　vicinity　of　the　great　monasteries　or　among　the　wandering　tribes　had　separated　into　factions　and　were　fighting　against　one　another；　from　Urga　came　the　news　of　the　struggle　for　the　maintenance　of　the　independence　of　Outer　Mongolia；　led　by　the　Russian　General；　Baron　Ungern　von　Sternberg；　Russian　officers　and　refugees　congregated　in　detachments；　against　which　the　Chinese　authorities　protested　but　which　the　Mongols　welcomed；　the　Bolsheviki；　worried　by　the　formation　of　White　detachments　in　Mongolia；　sent　their　troops　to　the　borders　of　Mongolia；　from　Irkutsk　and　Chita　to　Uliassutai　and　Urga　envoys　were　running　from　the　Bolsheviki　to　the　Chinese　commissioners　with　various　proposals　of　all　kinds；　the　Chinese　authorities　in　Mongolia　were　gradually　entering　into　secret　relations　with　the　Bolsheviki　and　in　Kiakhta　and　Ulankom　delivered　to　them　the　Russian　refugees；　thus　violating　recognized　international　law；　in　Urga　the　Bolsheviki　set　up　a　Russian　communistic　municipality；　Russian　Consuls　were　inactive；　Red　troops　in　the　region　of　Kosogol　and　the　valley　of　the　Selenga　had　encounters　with　Anti…Bolshevik　officers；　the　Chinese　authorities　established　garrisons　in　the　Mongolian　towns　and　sent　punitive　expeditions　into　the　country；　and；　to　complete　the　confusion；　the　Chinese　troops　carried　out　house…to…house　searches；　during　which　they　plundered　and　stole。
  Into　what　an　atmosphere　we　had　fallen　after　our　hard　and　dangerous　trip　along　the　Yenisei；　through　Urianhai；　Mongolia；　the　lands　of　the　Turguts；　Kansu　and　Koko　Nor！
  〃Do　you　know；〃　said　my　old　friend　to　me；　〃I　prefer　strangling　Partisans　and　fighting　with　the　hunghutze　to　listening　to　news　and　more　anxious　news！〃
  He　was　right；　for　the　worst　of　it　was　that　in　this　bustle　and　whirl　of　facts；　rumours　and　gossip　the　Reds　could　approach　troubled　Uliassutai　and　take　everyone　with　their　bare　hands。　　We　should　very　willingly　have　left　this　town　of　uncertainties　but　we　had　no　place　to　go。　　In　the　north　were　the　hostile　Partisans　and　Red　troops；　to　the　south　we　had　already　lost　our　companions　and　not　a　little　of　our　own　blood；　to　the　west　raged　the　Chinese　administrators　and　detachments；　and　to　the　east　a　war　had　broken　out；　the　news　of　which；　in　spite　of　the　attempts　of　the　Chinese　authorities　at　secrecy；　had　filtered　through　and　had　testified　to　the　seriousness　of　the　situation　in　this　part　of　Outer　Mongolia。　　Consequently　we　had　no　choice　but　to　remain　in　Uliassutai。　　Here　also　were　living　several　Polish　soldiers　who　had　escaped　from　the　prison　camps　in　Russia；　two　Polish　families　and　two　American　firms；　all　in　the　same　plight　as　ourselves。　　We　joined　together　and　made　our　own　intelligence　department；　very　carefully　watching　the　evolution　of　events。　　We　succeeded　in　forming　good　connections　with　the　Chinese　commissioner　and　with　the　Mongolian　Sait；　which　greatly　helped　us　in　our　orientation。
  What　was　behind　all　these　events　in　Mongolia？　　The　very　clever　Mongol　Sait　of　Uliassutai　gave　me　the　following　explanation。
  〃According　to　the　agreements　between　Mongolia；　China　and　Russia　of　October　21；　1912；　of　October　23；　1913；　and　of　June　7；　1915；　Outer　Mongolia　was　accorded　independence　and　the　Moral　Head　of　our　'Yellow　Faith；'　His　Holiness　the　Living　Buddha；　became　the　Suzerain　of　the　Mongolian　people　of　Khalkha　or　Outer　Mongolia　with　the　title　of　'Bogdo　Djebtsung　Damba　Hutuktu　Khan。'　　While　Russia　was　still　strong　and　carefully　watched　her　policy　in　Asia；　the　Government　of　Peking　kept　the　treaty；　but；　when；　at　the　beginning　of　the　war　with　Germany；　Russia　was　compelled　to　withdraw　her　troops　from　Siberia；　Peking　began　to　claim　the　return　of　its　lost　rights　in　Mongolia。　It　was　because　of　this　that　the　first　two　treaties　of　1912　and　1913　were　supplemented　by　the　convention　of　1915。　　However；　in　1916；　when　all　the　forces　of　Russia　were　pre…occupied　in　the　unsuccessful　war　and　afterwards　when　the　first　Russian　revolution　broke　out　in　February；　1917；　overthrowing　the　Romanoff　Dynasty；　the　Chinese　Government　openly　retook　Mongolia。　　They　changed　all　the　Mongolian　ministers　and　Saits；　replacing　them　with　individuals　friendly　to　China；　arrested　many　Mongolian　autonomists　and　sent　them　to　prison　in　Peking；　set　up　their　administration　in　Urga　and　other　Mongol　towns；　actually　removed　His　Holiness　Bogdo　Khan　from　the　affairs　of　administration；　made　him　only　a　machine　for　signing　Chinese　decrees；　and　at　last　introduced　into　Mongolia　their　troops。　　From　that　moment　there　developed　an　energetic　flow　of　Chinese　merchants　and　coolies　into　Mongolia。　　The　Chinese　began　to　demand　the　payment　of　taxes　and　dues　from　1912。　　The　Mongolian　population　were　rapidly　stripped　of　their　wealth　and　now　in　the　vicinities　of　our　towns　and　monasteries　you　can　see　whole　settlements　of　beggar　Mongols　living　in　dugouts。　　All　our　Mongol　arsenals　and　treasuries　were　requisitioned。　　All　monasteries　were　forced　to　pay　taxes；　all　Mongols　working　for　the　liberty　of　their　country　were　persecuted；　through　bribery　with　Chinese　silver；　orders　and　titles　the　Chinese　secured　a　following　among　the　poorer　Mongol　Princes。　　It　is　easy　to　understand　how　the　governing　class；　His　Holiness；　Khans；　Princes；　and　high　Lamas；　as　well　as　the　ruined　and　oppressed　people；　remembering　that　the　Mongol　rulers　had　once　held　Peking　and　China　in　their　hands　and　under　their　reign　had　given　her　the　first　place　in　Asia；　were　definitely　hostile　to　the　Chinese　administrators　acting　thus。　　Insurrection　was；　however；　impossible。　　We　had　no　arms。　　All　our　leaders　were　under　surveillance　and　every　movement　by　them　toward　an　armed　resistance　would　have　ended　in　the　same　prison　at　Peking　where　eighty　of　our　Nobles；　Princes　and　Lamas　died　from　hunger　and　torture　after　a　previous　struggle　for　the　liberty　of　Mongolia。　　Some　abnormally　strong　shock　was　necessary　to　drive　the　people　into　action。　　This　was　given　by　the　Chinese　administrators；　General　Cheng　Yi　and　General　Chu　Chi…hsiang。　　They　announced　that　His　Holiness　Bogdo　Khan　was　under　arrest　in　his　own　palace；　and　they　recalled　to　his　attention　the　former　decree　of　the　Peking　Governmentheld　by　the　Mongols　to　be　unwarranted　and　illegalthat　His　Holiness　was　the　last　Living　Buddha。　　This　was　enough。　　Immediately　secret　relations　were　made　between　the　people　and　their　Living　God；　and　plans　were　at　once　elaborated　for　the　liberation　of　His　Holiness　and　for　the　struggle　for　liberty　and　freedom　of　our　people。　　We　were　helped　by　the　great　Prince　of　the　Buriats；　Djam　Bolon；　who　began　parleys　with　General　Ungern；　then　engaged　in　fighting　the　Bolsheviki　in　Transbaikalia；　and　invited　him　to　enter　Mongolia　and　help　in　the　war　against　the　Chinese。　Then　our　struggle　for　liberty　began。〃
  Thus　the　Sait　of　Uliassutai　explained　the　situation　to　me。　Afterwards　I　heard　that　Baron　Ungern；　who　had　agreed　to　fight　for　the　liberty　of　Mongolia；　directed　that　the　mobilization　of　the　Mongolians　in　the　northern　districts　be　forwarded　at　once　and　promised　to　enter　Mongolia　with　his　own　small　detachment；　moving　along　the　River　Kerulen。　　Afterwards　he　took　up　relations　with　the　other　Russian　detachment　of　Colonel　Kazagrandi　and；　together　with　the　mobilized　Mongolian　riders；　began　the　attack　on　Urga。　　Twice　he　was　defeated　but　on　the　third　of　February；　1921；　he　succeeded　in　capturing　the　town　and　replaced　the　Living　Buddha　on　the　throne　of　the　Khans。
  At　the　end　of　March；　however；　these　events　were　still　unknown　in　Uliassutai。　　We　knew　neither　of　the　fall　of　Urga　nor　of　the　destruction　of　the　Chinese　army　of　nearly　15；000　in　the　battles　of　Maimachen　on　the　shore　of　the　Tola　and　on　the　roads　between　Urga　and　Ude。　　The　Chinese　carefully　concealed　the　truth　by　preventing　anybody　from　passing　westward　from　Urga。　　However；　rumours　existed　and　troubled　all。　　The　atmosphere　became　more　and　more　tense；　while　the　relations　between　the　Chinese　on　the　one　side　and　the　Mongolians　and　Russians　on　the　other　became　more　and　more　strained。　At　this　time　the　Chinese　Commissioner　in　Uliassutai　was　Wang　Tsao…　tsun　and　his　advisor；　Fu　Hsiang；　both　very　young　and　inexperienced　men。　　The　Chinese　authorities　had　dismissed　the　Uliassutai　Sait；