y　are　almost　always　carried　on。　That　these　should　be　of　a　very　miscellaneous　character　is；　indeed；　part　of　the　usefulness　of　the　institution；　it　is　that　circumstance　chiefly　which　renders　it　a　school　of　political　capacity　and　general　intelligence。　But　a　school　supposes　teachers　as　well　as　scholars；　the　utility　of　the　instruction　greatly　depends　on　its　bringing　inferior　minds　into　contact　with　superior；　a　contact　which　in　the　ordinary　course　of　life　is　altogether　exceptional；　and　the　want　of　which　contributes　more　than　anything　else　to　keep　the　generality　of　mankind　on　one　level　of　contented　ignorance。　The　school；　moreover；　is　worthless；　and　a　school　of　evil　instead　of　good；　if　through　the　want　of　due　surveillance；　and　of　the　presence　within　itself　of　a　higher　order　of　characters；　the　action　of　the　body　is　allowed；　as　it　so　often　is；　to　degenerate　into　an　equally　unscrupulous　and　stupid　pursuit　of　the　self…interest　of　its　members。　Now　it　is　quite　hopeless　to　induce　persons　of　a　high　class；　either　socially　or　intellectually；　to　take　a　share　of　local　administration　in　a　corner　by　piece…meal；　as　members　of　a　Paving　Board　or　a　Drainage　Commission。　The　entire　local　business　of　their　town　is　not　more　than　a　sufficient　object　to　induce　men　whose　tastes　incline　them　and　whose　knowledge　qualifies　them　for　national　affairs　to　become　members　of　a　mere　local　body；　and　devote　to　it　the　time　and　study　which　are　necessary　to　render　their　presence　anything　more　than　a　screen　for　the　jobbing　of　inferior　persons　under　the　shelter　of　their　responsibility。　A　mere　Board　of　Works；　though　it　comprehend　the　entire　metropolis；　is　sure　to　be　composed　of　the　same　class　of　persons　as　the　vestries　of　the　London　parishes；　nor　is　it　practicable；　or　even　desirable；　that　such　should　not　form　the　majority；　but　it　is　important　for　every　purpose　which　local　bodies　are　designed　to　serve；　whether　it　be　the　enlightened　and　honest　performance　of　their　special　duties；　or　the　cultivation　of　the　political　intelligence　of　the　nation；　that　every　such　body　should　contain　a　portion　of　the　very　best　minds　of　the　locality：　who　are　thus　brought　into　perpetual　contact；　of　the　most　useful　kind；　with　minds　of　a　lower　grade；　receiving　from　them　what　local　or　professional　knowledge　they　have　to　give；　and　in　return　inspiring　them　with　a　portion　of　their　own　more　enlarged　ideas；　and　higher　and　more　enlightened　purposes。　　　A　mere　village　has　no　claim　to　a　municipal　representation。　By　a　village　I　mean　a　place　whose　inhabitants　are　not　markedly　distinguished　by　occupation　or　social　relations　from　those　of　the　rural　districts　adjoining；　and　for　whose　local　wants　the　arrangements　made　for　the　surrounding　territory　will　suffice。　Such　small　places　have　rarely　a　sufficient　public　to　furnish　a　tolerable　municipal　council：　if　they　contain　any　talent　or　knowledge　applicable　to　public　business；　it　is　apt　to　be　all　concentrated　in　some　one　man；　who　thereby　becomes　the　dominator　of　the　place。　It　is　better　that　such　places　should　be　merged　in　a　larger　circumscription。　The　local　representation　of　rural　districts　will　naturally　be　determined　by　geographical　considerations；　with　due　regard　to　those　sympathies　of　feeling　by　which　human　beings　are　so　much　aided　to　act　in　concert；　and　which　partly　follow　historical　boundaries；　such　as　those　of　counties　or　provinces；　and　partly　community　of　interest　and　occupation；　as　in　agriculture；　maritime；　manufacturing；　or　mining　districts。　Different　kinds　of　local　business　require　different　areas　of　representation。　The　Unions　of　parishes　have　been　fixed　on　as　the　most　appropriate　basis　for　the　representative　bodies　which　superintend　the　relief　of　indigence；　while；　for　the　proper　regulation　of　highways；　or　prisons；　or　police；　a　large　extent；　like　that　of　an　average　county；　is　not　more　than　sufficient。　In　these　large　districts；　therefore；　the　maxim；　that　an　elective　body　constituted　in　any　locality　should　have　authority　over　all　the　local　concerns　common　to　the　locality；　requires　modification　from　another　principle…　as　well　as　from　the　competing　consideration　of　the　importance　of　obtaining　for　the　discharge　of　the　local　duties　the　highest　qualifications　possible。　For　example；　if　it　be　necessary　（as　I　believe　it　to　be）　for　the　proper　administration　of　the　Poor　Laws　that　the　area　of　rating　should　not　be　more　extensive　than　most　of　the　present　Unions；　a　principle　which　requires　a　Board　of　Guardians　for　each　Union…　yet；　as　a　much　more　highly　qualified　class　of　persons　is　likely　to　be　obtainable　for　a　County　Board　than　those　who　compose　an　average　Board　of　Guardians；　it　may　on　that　ground　be　expedient　to　reserve　for　the　County　Boards　some　higher　descriptions　of　local　business；　which　might　otherwise　have　been　conveniently　managed　within　itself　by　each　separate　Union。　　　Besides　the　controlling　council；　or　local　sub…Parliament；　local　business　has　its　executive　department。　With　respect　to　this；　the　same　questions　arise　as　with　respect　to　the　executive　authorities　in　the　State；　and　they　may；　for　the　most　part；　be　answered　in　the　same　manner。　The　principles　applicable　to　all　public　trusts　are　in　substance　the　same。　In　the　first　place；　each　executive　officer　should　be　single；　and　singly　responsible　for　the　whole　of　the　duty　committed　to　his　charge。　In　the　next　place；　he　should　be　nominated；　not　elected。　It　is　ridiculous　that　a　surveyor；　or　a　health　officer；　or　even　a　collector　of　rates；　should　be　appointed　by　popular　suffrage。　The　popular　choice　usually　depends　on　interest　with　a　few　local　leaders；　who；　as　they　are　not　supposed　to　make　the　appointment；　are　not　responsible　for　it；　or　on　an　appeal　to　sympathy；　founded　on　having　twelve　children；　and　having　been　a　rate…payer　in　the　parish　for　thirty　years。　If　in　cases　of　this　description　election　by　the　population　is　a　farce；　appointment　by　the　local　representative　body　is　little　less　objectionable。　Such　bodies　have　a　perpetual　tendency　to　become　joint…stock　associations　for　carrying　into　effect　the　private　jobs　of　their　various　members。　Appointments　should　be　made　on　the　individual　responsibility　of　the　Chairman　of　the　body；　let　him　be　called　Mayor；　Chairman　of　Quarter　Sessions；　or　by　whatever　other　title。　He　occupies　in　the　locality　a　position　analogous　to　that　of　the　prime　minister　in　the　State；　and　under　a　well　organised　system　the　appointment　and　watching　of　the　local　officers　would　be　the　most　important　part　of　his　duty：　he　himself　being　appointed　by　the　Council　from　its　own　number；　subject　either　to　annual　re…election；　or　to　removal　by　a　vote　of　the　body。　　　From　the　constitution　of　the　local　bodies　I　now　pass　to　the　equally　important　and　more　difficult　subject　of　their　proper　attributions。　This　question　divides　itself　into　two　parts：　what　should　be　their　duties；　and　whether　they　should　have　full　authority　within　the　sphere　of　those　duties；　or　should　be　liable　to　any；　and　what；　interference　on　the　part　of　the　central　government。　　　It　is　obvious；　to　begin　with；　that　all　business　purely　local…　all　which　concerns　only　a　single　locality…　should　devolve　upon　the　local　authorities。　The　paving；　lighting；　and　cleansing　of　the　streets　of　a　town；　and　in　ordinary　circumstances　the　draining　of　its　houses；　are　of　little　consequence　to　any　but　its　inhabitants。　The　nation　at　large　is　interested　in　them　in　no　other　way　than　that　in　which　it　is　interested　in　the　private　well…being　of　all　its　individual　citizens。　But　among　the　duties　classed　as　local；　or　performed　by　local　functionaries；　there　are　many　which　might　with　equal　propriety　be　termed　national；　being　the　share；　belonging　to　the　locality；　of　some　branch　of　the　public　administration　in　the　efficiency　of　which　the　whole　nation　is　alike　interested：　the　gaols；　for　instance；　most　of　which　in　this　country　are　under　county　management；　the　local　police；　the　local　administration　of　justice；　much　of　which；　especially　in　corporate　towns；　is　performed　by　officers　elected　by　the　locality；　and　paid　from　local　funds。　None　of　these　can　be　said　to　be　matters　of　local；　as　distinguished　from　national；　importance。　It　would　not　be　a　matter　personally　indifferent　to　the　rest　of　the　country　if　any　part　of　it　became　a　nest　of　robbers　or　a　focus　of　demoralisation；　owing　to　the　maladministration　of　its　police；　or　if；　through　the　bad　regulations　of　its　gaol；　the　punishment　which　the　courts　of　justice　intended　to　inflict　on　the　criminals　confined　therein　（who　might　have　come　from；　or　committed　their　offences　in；　any　other　district）　might　be　doubled　in　intensity；　or　lowered　to　practical　impunity。　The　points；　moreover；　which　constitute　good　management　of　these　things　are　the　same　everywhere；　there　is　no　good　reason　why　police；　or　gaols；　or　the　administration　of　justice；　should　be　differently　managed　in　one　part　of　the　kingdom　and　in　another；　while　there　is　great　peril　that　in　things　so　important；　and　to　which　the　most　instructed　minds　available　to　the　State　are　not　more　than　adequate；　the　lower　average　of　capacities　which　alone　can　be　counted　on　for　the　service　of　the　localities　might　commit　errors　of　such　magnitude　as　to　be　a　serious　blot　upon　the　general　administration　of　the　country。　　　Security　of　person　and　property；　and　equal　justice　between　individuals；　are　the　first　needs　of　society；　and　the　primary　ends　of　government：　i