th　the　friends　of　democracy；　as　a　logical　consequence　of　their　principle；　with　those　who　rather　accept　than　prefer　democratic　government；　as　indispensable　corrective　of　its　inconveniences。　The　political　thinkers　of　Switzerland　led　the　way。　Those　of　France　followed。　To　mention　no　others；　within　a　very　recent　period　two　of　the　most　influential　and　authoritative　writers　in　France；　one　belonging　to　the　moderate　liberal　and　the　other　to　the　extreme　democratic　school；　have　given　in　a　public　adhesion　to　the　plan。　Among　its　German　supporters　is　numbered　one　of　the　most　eminent　political　thinkers　in　Germany；　who　is　also　a　distinguished　member　of　the　liberal　Cabinet　of　the　Grand　Duke　of　Baden。　This　subject；　among　others；　has　its　share　in　the　important　awakening　of　thought　in　the　American　republic；　which　is　already　one　of　the　fruits　of　the　great　pending　contest　for　human　freedom。　In　the　two　principal　of　our　Australian　colonies　Mr。　Hare's　plan　has　been　brought　under　the　consideration　of　their　respective　legislatures；　and　though　not　yet　adopted；　has　already　a　strong　party　in　its　favour；　while　the　clear　and　complete　understanding　of　its　principles；　shown　by　the　majority　of　the　speakers　both　on　the　Conservative　and　on　the　Radical　side　of　general　politics；　shows　how　unfounded　is　the　notion　of　its　being　too　complicated　to　be　capable　of　being　generally　comprehended　and　acted　on。　Nothing　is　required　to　make　both　the　plan　and　its　advantages　intelligible　to　all；　except　that　the　time　should　have　come　when　they　will　think　it　worth　their　while　to　take　the　trouble　of　really　attending　to　it。　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Chapter　8　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Extension　of　the　Suffrage。
  SUCH　A　representative　democracy　as　has　now　been　sketched；　representative　of　all；　and　not　solely　of　the　majority…　in　which　the　interests　the　opinions；　the　grades　of　intellect　which　are　outnumbered　would　nevertheless　be　heard；　and　would　have　a　chance　of　obtaining　by　weight　of　character　and　strength　of　argument　an　influence　which　would　not　belong　to　their　numerical　force…　this　democracy；　which　is　alone　equal；　alone　impartial；　alone　the　government　of　all　by　all；　the　only　true　type　of　democracy…　would　be　free　from　the　greatest　evils　of　the　falsely…called　democracies　which　now　prevail；　and　from　which　the　current　idea　of　democracy　is　exclusively　derived。　But　even　in　this　democracy；　absolute　power；　if　they　chose　to　exercise　it；　would　rest　with　the　numerical　majority；　and　these　would　be　composed　exclusively　of　a　single　class；　alike　in　biasses；　prepossessions；　and　general　modes　of　thinking；　and　a　class；　to　say　no　more；　not　the　most　highly　cultivated。　The　constitution　would　therefore　still　be　liable　to　the　characteristic　evils　of　class　government：　in　a　far　less　degree；　assuredly；　than　that　exclusive　government　by　a　class；　which　now　usurps　the　name　of　democracy；　but　still；　under　no　effective　restraint；　except　what　might　be　found　in　the　good　sense；　moderation；　and　forbearance　of　the　class　itself。　If　checks　of　this　description　are　sufficient；　the　philosophy　of　constitutional　government　is　but　solemn　trifling。　All　trust　in　constitutions　is　grounded　on　the　assurance　they　may　afford；　not　that　the　depositaries　of　power　will　not；　but　that　they　cannot；　misemploy　it。　Democracy　is　not　the　ideally　best　form　of　government　unless　this　weak　side　of　it　can　be　strengthened；　unless　it　can　be　so　organised　that　no　class；　not　even　the　most　numerous；　shall　be　able　to　reduce　all　but　itself　to　political　insignificance；　and　direct　the　course　of　legislation　and　administration　by　its　exclusive　class　interest。　The　problem　is；　to　find　the　means　of　preventing　this　abuse；　without　sacrificing　the　characteristic　advantages　of　popular　government。　　　These　twofold　requisites　are　not　fulfilled　by　the　expedient　of　a　limitation　of　the　suffrage；　involving　the　compulsory　exclusion　of　any　portion　of　the　citizens　from　a　voice　in　the　representation。　Among　the　foremost　benefits　of　free　government　is　that　education　of　the　intelligence　and　of　the　sentiments　which　is　carried　down　to　the　very　lowest　ranks　of　the　people　when　they　are　called　to　take　a　part　in　acts　which　directly　affect　the　great　interests　of　their　country。　On　this　topic　I　have　already　dwelt　so　emphatically　that　I　only　return　to　it　because　there　are　few　who　seem　to　attach　to　this　effect　of　popular　institutions　all　the　importance　to　which　it　is　entitled。　People　think　it　fanciful　to　expect　so　much　from　what　seems　so　slight　a　cause…　to　recognise　a　potent　instrument　of　mental　improvement　in　the　exercise　of　political　franchises　by　manual　labourers。　Yet　unless　substantial　mental　cultivation　in　the　mass　of　mankind　is　to　be　a　mere　vision；　this　is　the　road　by　which　it　must　come。　If　any　one　supposes　that　this　road　will　not　bring　it；　I　call　to　witness　the　entire　contents　of　M。　de　Tocqueville's　great　work；　and　especially　his　estimate　of　the　Americans。　Almost　all　travellers　are　struck　by　the　fact　that　every　American　is　in　some　sense　both　a　patriot；　and　a　person　of　cultivated　intelligence；　and　M。　de　Tocqueville　has　shown　how　close　the　connection　is　between　these　qualities　and　their　democratic　institutions。　No　such　wide　diffusion　of　the　ideas；　tastes；　and　sentiments　of　educated　minds　has　ever　been　seen　elsewhere；　or　even　conceived　as　attainable。*
  *　The　following　〃extract　from　the　Report　of　the　English　Commissioner　to　the　New　York　Exhibition；〃　which　I　quote　from　Mr。　Carey's　Principles　of　Social　Science　bears　striking　testimony　to　one　part；　at　least；　of　the　assertion　in　the　text：…　　　〃We　have　a　few　great　engineers　and　mechanics；　and　a　large　body　of　clever　workmen；　but　the　Americans　seem　likely　to　become　a　whole　nation　of　such　people。　Already；　their　rivers　swarm　with　steamboats；　their　valleys　are　becoming　crowded　with　factories；　their　towns；　surpassing　those　of　every　state　of　Europe；　except　Belgium；　Holland；　and　England；　are　the　abodes　of　all　the　skill　which　now　distinguishes　a　town　population；　and　there　is　scarcely　an　art　in　Europe　not　carried　on　in　America　with　equal　or　greater　skill　than　in　Europe；　though　it　has　been　here　cultivated　and　improved　through　ages。　A　whole　nation　of　Franklins；　Stephensons；　and　Watts　in　prospect；　is　something　wonderful　for　other　nations　to　contemplate。　In　contrast　with　the　comparative　inertness　and　ignorance　of　the　bulk　of　the　people　of　Europe；　whatever　may　be　the　superiority　of　a　few　well…instructed　and　gifted　persons；　the　America　is　the　circumstance　most　worthy　of　public　attention。〃
  Yet　this　is　nothing　to　what　we　might　look　for　in　a　government　equally　democratic　in　its　unexclusiveness；　but　better　organised　in　other　important　points。　For　political　life　is　indeed　in　America　a　most　valuable　school；　but　it　is　a　school　from　which　the　ablest　teachers　are　excluded；　the　first　minds　in　the　country　being　as　effectually　shut　out　from　the　national　representation；　and　from　public　functions　generally；　as　if　they　were　under　a　formal　disqualification。　The　Demos；　too；　being　in　America　the　one　source　of　power；　all　the　selfish　ambition　of　the　country　gravitates　towards　it；　as　it　does　in　despotic　countries　towards　the　monarch：　the　people；　like　the　despot；　is　pursued　with　adulation　and　sycophancy；　and　the　corrupting　effects　of　power　fully　keep　pace　with　its　improving　and　ennobling　influences。　If；　even　with　this　alloy；　democratic　institutions　produce　so　marked　a　superiority　of　mental　development　in　the　lowest　class　of　Americans；　compared　with　the　corresponding　classes　in　England　and　elsewhere；　what　would　it　be　if　the　good　portion　of　the　influence　could　be　retained　without　the　bad？　And　this；　to　a　certain　extent；　may　be　done；　but　not　by　excluding　that　portion　of　the　people　who　have　fewest　intellectual　stimuli　of　other　kinds　from　so　inestimable　an　introduction　to　large；　distant；　and　complicated　interests　as　is　afforded　by　the　attention　they　may　be　induced　to　bestow　on　political　affairs。　It　is　by　political　discussion　that　the　manual　labourer；　whose　employment　is　a　routine；　and　whose　way　of　life　brings　him　in　contact　with　no　variety　of　impressions；　circumstances；　or　ideas；　is　taught　that　remote　causes；　and　events　which　take　place　far　off；　have　a　most　sensible　effect　even　on　his　personal　interests；　and　it　is　from　political　discussion；　and　collective　political　action；　that　one　whose　daily　occupations　concentrate　his　interests　in　a　small　circle　round　himself；　learns　to　feel　for　and　with　his　fellow　citizens；　and　becomes　consciously　a　member　of　a　great　community。　But　political　discussions　fly　over　the　heads　of　those　who　have　no　votes；　and　are　not　endeavouring　to　acquire　them。　Their　position；　in　comparison　with　the　electors；　is　that　of　the　audience　in　a　court　of　justice；　compared　with　the　twelve　men　in　the　jury…box。　It　is　not　their　suffrages　that　are　asked；　it　is　not　their　opinion　that　is　sought　to　be　influenced；　the　appeals　are　made；　the　arguments　addressed；　to　others　than　them；　nothing　depends　on　the　decision　they　may　arrive　at；　and　there　is　no　necessity　and　very　little　inducement　to　them　to　come　to　any。　Whoever；　in　an　otherwise　popular　government；　has　no　vote；　and　no　prospect　of　obtaining　it；　will　either　be　a　permanent　malcontent；　or　will　feel　as　one　whom　the　general　affairs　of　society　do　not　concern；　for　whom　they　are　to　be　managed　by　others；　who　〃has　no　business　with　the　laws　except　to