1861
  REPRESENTATIVE　GOVERNMENT
  by　John　Stuart　Mill
  PREFACE。
  THOSE　who　have　done　me　the　honour　of　reading　my　previous　writings　will　probably　receive　no　strong　impression　of　novelty　from　the　present　volume；　for　the　principles　are　those　to　which　I　have　been　working　up　during　the　greater　part　of　my　life；　and　most　of　the　practical　suggestions　have　been　anticipated　by　others　or　by　myself。　There　is　novelty；　however；　in　the　fact　of　bringing　them　together；　and　exhibiting　them　in　their　connection；　and　also；　I　believe；　in　much　that　is　brought　forward　in　their　support。　Several　of　the　opinions　at　all　events；　if　not　new；　are　for　the　present　as　little　likely　to　meet　with　general　acceptance　as　if　they　were。　　　It　seems　to　me；　however；　from　various　indications；　and　from　none　more　than　the　recent　debates　on　Reform　of　Parliament；　that　both　Conservatives　and　Liberals　（if　I　may　continue　to　call　them　what　they　still　call　themselves）　have　lost　confidence　in　the　political　creeds　which　they　nominally　profess；　while　neither　side　appears　to　have　made　any　progress　in　providing　itself　with　a　better。　Yet　such　a　better　doctrine　must　be　possible；　not　a　mere　compromise；　by　splitting　the　difference　between　the　two；　but　something　wider　than　either；　which；　in　virtue　of　its　superior　comprehensiveness；　might　be　adopted　by　either　Liberal　or　Conservative　without　renouncing　anything　which　he　really　feels　to　be　valuable　in　his　own　creed。　When　so　many　feel　obscurely　the　want　of　such　a　doctrine；　and　so　few　even　flatter　themselves　that　they　have　attained　it；　any　one　may　without　presumption　offer　what　his　own　thoughts；　and　the　best　that　he　knows　of　those　of　others；　are　able　to　contribute　towards　its　formation。　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Chapter　1　　　　　　　　To　what　extent　Forms　of　Government　are　a　Matter　of　Choice。
  ALL　SPECULATIONS　concerning　forms　of　government　bear　the　impress；　more　or　less　exclusive；　of　two　conflicting　theories　respecting　political　institutions；　or；　to　speak　more　properly；　conflicting　conceptions　of　what　political　institutions　are。　　　By　some　minds；　government　is　conceived　as　strictly　a　practical　art；　giving　rise　to　no　questions　but　those　of　means　and　an　end。　Forms　of　government　are　assimilated　to　any　other　expedients　for　the　attainment　of　human　objects。　They　are　regarded　as　wholly　an　affair　of　invention　and　contrivance。　Being　made　by　man；　it　is　assumed　that　man　has　the　choice　either　to　make　them　or　not；　and　how　or　on　what　pattern　they　shall　be　made。　Government；　according　to　this　conception；　is　a　problem；　to　be　worked　like　any　other　question　of　business。　The　first　step　is　to　define　the　purposes　which　governments　are　required　to　promote。　The　next；　is　to　inquire　what　form　of　government　is　best　fitted　to　fulfil　those　purposes。　Having　satisfied　ourselves　on　these　two　points；　and　ascertained　the　form　of　government　which　combines　the　greatest　amount　of　good　with　the　least　of　evil；　what　further　remains　is　to　obtain　the　concurrence　of　our　countrymen；　or　those　for　whom　the　institutions　are　intended；　in　the　opinion　which　we　have　privately　arrived　at。　To　find　the　best　form　of　government；　to　persuade　others　that　it　is　the　best；　and　having　done　so；　to　stir　them　up　to　insist　on　having　it；　is　the　order　of　ideas　in　the　minds　of　those　who　adopt　this　view　of　political　philosophy。　They　look　upon　a　constitution　in　the　same　light　（difference　of　scale　being　allowed　for）　as　they　would　upon　a　steam　plough；　or　a　threshing　machine。　　　To　these　stand　opposed　another　kind　of　political　reasoners；　who　are　so　far　from　assimilating　a　form　of　government　to　a　machine；　that　they　regard　it　as　a　sort　of　spontaneous　product；　and　the　science　of　government　as　a　branch　（so　to　speak）　of　natural　history。　According　to　them；　forms　of　government　are　not　a　matter　of　choice。　We　must　take　them；　in　the　main；　as　we　find　them。　Governments　cannot　be　constructed　by　premeditated　design。　They　〃are　not　made；　but　grow。〃　Our　business　with　them；　as　with　the　other　facts　of　the　universe；　is　to　acquaint　ourselves　with　their　natural　properties；　and　adapt　ourselves　to　them。　The　fundamental　political　institutions　of　a　people　are　considered　by　this　school　as　a　sort　of　organic　growth　from　the　nature　and　life　of　that　people：　a　product　of　their　habits；　instincts；　and　unconscious　wants　and　desires；　scarcely　at　all　of　their　deliberate　purposes。　Their　will　has　had　no　part　in　the　matter　but　that　of　meeting　the　necessities　of　the　moment　by　the　contrivances　of　the　moment；　which　contrivances；　if　in　sufficient　conformity　to　the　national　feelings　and　character；　commonly　last；　and　by　successive　aggregation　constitute　a　polity；　suited　to　the　people　who　possess　it；　but　which　it　would　be　vain　to　attempt　to　superduce　upon　any　people　whose　nature　and　circumstances　had　not　spontaneously　evolved　it。　　　It　is　difficult　to　decide　which　of　these　doctrines　would　be　the　most　absurd；　if　we　could　suppose　either　of　them　held　as　an　exclusive　theory。　But　the　principles　which　men　profess；　on　any　controverted　subject；　are　usually　a　very　incomplete　exponent　of　the　opinions　they　really　hold。　No　one　believes　that　every　people　is　capable　of　working　every　sort　of　institutions。　Carry　the　analogy　of　mechanical　contrivances　as　far　as　we　will；　a　man　does　not　choose　even　an　instrument　of　timber　and　iron　on　the　sole　ground　that　it　is　in　itself　the　best。　He　considers　whether　he　possesses　the　other　requisites　which　must　be　combined　with　it　to　render　its　employment　advantageous；　and　in　particular　whether　those　by　whom　it　will　have　to　be　worked　possess　the　knowledge　and　skill　necessary　for　its　management。　On　the　other　hand；　neither　are　those　who　speak　of　institutions　as　if　they　were　a　kind　of　living　organisms　really　the　political　fatalists　they　give　themselves　out　to　be。　They　do　not　pretend　that　mankind　have　absolutely　no　range　of　choice　as　to　the　government　they　will　live　under；　or　that　a　consideration　of　the　consequences　which　flow　from　different　forms　of　polity　is　no　element　at　all　in　deciding　which　of　them　should　be　preferred。　But　though　each　side　greatly　exaggerates　its　own　theory；　out　of　opposition　to　the　other；　and　no　one　holds　without　modification　to　either；　the　two　doctrines　correspond　to　a　deep…seated　difference　between　two　modes　of　thought；　and　though　it　is　evident　that　neither　of　these　is　entirely　in　the　right；　yet　it　being　equally　evident　that　neither　is　wholly　in　the　wrong；　we　must　endeavour　to　get　down　to　what　is　at　the　root　of　each；　and　avail　ourselves　of　the　amount　of　truth　which　exists　in　either。　　　Let　us　remember；　then；　in　the　first　place；　that　political　institutions　（however　the　proposition　may　be　at　times　ignored）　are　the　work　of　men；　owe　their　origin　and　their　whole　existence　to　human　will。　Men　did　not　wake　on　a　summer　morning　and　find　them　sprung　up。　Neither　do　they　resemble　trees；　which；　once　planted；　〃are　aye　growing〃　while　men　〃are　sleeping。〃　In　every　stage　of　their　existence　they　are　made　what　they　are　by　human　voluntary　agency。　Like　all　things；　therefore；　which　are　made　by　men；　they　may　be　either　well　or　ill　made；　judgment　and　skill　may　have　been　exercised　in　their　production；　or　the　reverse　of　these。　And　again；　if　a　people　have　omitted；　or　from　outward　pressure　have　not　had　it　in　their　power；　to　give　themselves　a　constitution　by　the　tentative　process　of　applying　a　corrective　to　each　evil　as　it　arose；　or　as　the　sufferers　gained　strength　to　resist　it；　this　retardation　of　political　progress　is　no　doubt　a　great　disadvantage　to　them；　but　it　does　not　prove　that　what　has　been　found　good　for　others　would　not　have　been　good　also　for　them；　and　will　not　be　so　still　when　they　think　fit　to　adopt　it。　　　On　the　other　hand；　it　is　also　to　be　borne　in　mind　that　political　machinery　does　not　act　of　itself。　As　it　is　first　made；　so　it　has　to　be　worked；　by　men；　and　even　by　ordinary　men。　It　needs；　not　their　simple　acquiescence；　but　their　active　participation；　and　must　be　adjusted　to　the　capacities　and　qualities　of　such　men　as　are　available。　This　implies　three　conditions。　The　people　for　whom　the　form　of　government　is　intended　must　be　willing　to　accept　it；　or　at　least　not　so　unwilling　as　to　oppose　an　insurmountable　obstacle　to　its　establishment。　They　must　be　willing　and　able　to　do　what　is　necessary　to　keep　it　standing。　And　they　must　be　willing　and　able　to　do　what　it　requires　of　them　to　enable　it　to　fulfil　its　purposes。　The　word　〃do〃　is　to　be　understood　as　including　forbearances　as　well　as　acts。　They　must　be　capable　of　fulfilling　the　conditions　of　action；　and　the　conditions　of　self…restraint；　which　are　necessary　either　for　keeping　the　established　polity　in　existence；　or　for　enabling　it　to　achieve　the　ends；　its　conduciveness　to　which　forms　its　recommendation。　　　The　failure　of　any　of　these　conditions　renders　a　form　of　government；　whatever　favourable　promise　it　may　otherwise　hold　out；　unsuitable　to　the　particular　case。　　　The　first　obstacle；　the　repugnance　of　the　people　to　the　particular　form　of　government；　needs　little　illustration；　because　it　never　can　in　theory　have　been　overlooked。　The　case　is　of　perpetual　occurrence。　Nothing　but　foreign　force　would　induce　a　tribe　of　North　American　Indians　to　submit　to　the　restraints　of　a　regular　and　c