determines　the　same　thing　about　all；　and　all　determine　the　same
  thing　about　each…　that　ought　to　have　the　power　of　enacting　law　in
  the　state。
  The　members　of　a　civil　society　thus　united　for　the　purpose　of
  legislation；　and　thereby　constituting　a　state；　are　called　its
  citizens；　and　there　are　three　juridical　attributes　that　inseparably
  belong　to　them　by　right。　These　are：　1。　constitutional　freedom；　as
  the　right　of　every　citizen　to　have　to　obey　no　other　law　than　that　to
  which　he　has　given　his　consent　or　approval；　2。　civil　equality；　as
  the　right　of　the　citizen　to　recognise　no　one　as　a　superior　among　the
  people　in　relation　to　himself；　except　in　so　far　as　such　a　one　is　as
  subject　to　his　moral　power　to　impose　obligations；　as　that　other　has
  power　to　impose　obligations　upon　him；　and　3。　political　independence；
  as　the　light　to　owe　his　existence　and　continuance　in　society　not　to
  the　arbitrary　will　of　another；　but　to　his　own　rights　and　powers　as　a
  member　of　the　commonwealth；　and；　consequently；　the　possession　of　a
  civil　personality；　which　cannot　be　represented　by　any　other　than
  himself。
  The　capability　of　voting　by　possession　of　the　suffrage　properly
  constitutes　the　political　qualification　of　a　citizen　as　a　member　of
  the　state。　But　this；　again；　presupposes　the　independence　or
  self…sufficiency　of　the　individual　citizen　among　the　people；　as　one
  who　is　not　a　mere　incidental　part　of　the　commonwealth；　but　a　member　of
  it　acting　of　his　own　will　in　community　with　others。　The　last　of　the
  three　qualities　involved　necessarily　constitutes　the　distinction
  between　active　and　passive　citizenship；　although　the　latter　conception
  appears　to　stand　in　contradiction　to　the　definition　of　a　citizen　as
  such。　The　following　examples　may　serve　to　remove　this　difficulty。
  The　apprentice　of　a　merchant　or　tradesman；　a　servant　who　is　not　in　the
  employ　of　the　state；　a　minor　（naturaliter　vel　civiliter）；　all　women；
  and；　generally；　every　one　who　is　compelled　to　maintain　himself　not
  according　to　his　own　industry；　but　as　it　is　arranged　by　others　（the
  state　excepted）；　are　without　civil　personality；　and　their　existence　is
  only；　as　it　were；　incidentally　included　in　the　state。　The　woodcutter
  whom　I　employ　on　my　estate；　the　smith　in　India　who　carries　his　hammer；
  anvil；　and　bellows　into　the　houses　where　he　is　engaged　to　work　in
  iron；　as　distinguished　from　the　European　carpenter　or　smith；　who　can
  offer　the　independent　products　of　his　labour　as　wares　for　public　sale；
  the　resident　tutor　as　distinguished　from　the　schoolmaster；　the
  ploughman　as　distinguished　from　the　farmer　and　such　like；　illustrate
  the　distinction　in　question。　In　all　these　cases；　the　former　members　of
  the　contrast　are　distinguished　from　the　latter　by　being　mere
  subsidiaries　of　the　commonwealth　and　not　active　independent　members　of
  it；　because　they　are　of　necessity　commanded　and　protected　by　others；
  and　consequently　possess　no　political　self…sufficiency　in
  themselves。　Such　dependence　on　the　will　of　others　and　the　consequent
  inequality　are；　however；　not　inconsistent　with　the　freedom　and
  equality　of　the　individuals　as　men　helping　to　constitute　the　people。
  Much　rather　is　it　the　case　that　it　is　only　under　such　conditions
  that　a　people　can　become　a　state　and　enter　into　a　civil
  constitution。　But　all　are　not　equally　qualified　to　exercise　the
  right　of　suffrage　under　the　constitution；　and　to　be　full　citizens　of
  the　state；　and　not　mere　passive　subjects　under　its　protection。　For；
  although　they　are　entitled　to　demand　to　be　treated　by　all　the　other
  citizens　according　to　laws　of　natural　freedom　and　equality；　as　passive
  parts　of　the　state；　it　does　not　follow　that　they　ought　themselves　to
  have　the　right　to　deal　with　the　state　as　active　members　of　it；　to
  reorganize　it；　or　to　take　action　by　way　of　introducing　certain　laws。
  All　they　have　a　right　in　their　circumstances　to　claim　may　be　no　more
  than　that　whatever　be　the　mode　in　which　the　positive　laws　are　enacted；
  these　laws　must　not　be　contrary　to　the　natural　laws　that　demand　the
  freedom　of　all　the　people　and　the　equality　that　is　conformable
  thereto；　and　it　must　therefore　be　made　possible　for　them　to　raise
  themselves　from　this　passive　condition　in　the　state　to　the　condition
  of　active　citizenship。
  47。　Dignities　in　the　State　and　the　Original　Contract。
  All　these　three　powers　in　the　state　are　dignities；　and；　as
  necessarily　arising　out　of　the　idea　of　the　state　and　essential
  generally　to　the　foundation　of　its　constitution；　they　are　to　be
  regarded　as　political　dignities。　They　imply　the　relation　between　a
  universal　sovereign　as　head　of　the　state…　which　according　to　the
  laws　of　freedom　can　be　none　other　than　the　people　itself　united　into　a
  nation…　and　the　mass　of　the　individuals　of　the　nation　as　subjects。　The
  former　member　of　the　relation　is　the　ruling　power；　whose　function　is
  to　govern　（imperans）；　the　latter　is　the　ruled　constituents　of　the
  state；　whose　function　is　to　obey　（subditi）。
  The　act　by　which　a　people　is　represented　as　constituting　itself　into
  a　state；　is　termed　the　original　contract。　This　is　properly　only　an
  outward　mode　of　representing　the　idea　by　which　the　rightfulness　of　the
  process　of　organizing　the　constitution　may　be　made　conceivable。
  According　to　this　representation；　all　and　each　of　the　people　give　up
  their　external　freedom　in　order　to　receive　it　immediately　again　as
  members　of　a　commonwealth。　The　commonwealth　is　the　people　viewed　as
  united　altogether　into　a　state。　And　thus　it　is　not　to　be　said　that　the
  individual　in　the　state　has　sacrificed　a　part　of　his　inborn　external
  freedom　for　a　particular　purpose；　but　he　has　abandoned　his　wild
  lawless　freedom　wholly；　in　order　to　find　all　his　proper　freedom
  again　entire　and　undiminished；　but　in　the　form　of　a　regulated　order　of
  dependence；　that　is；　in　a　civil　state　regulated　by　laws　of　right。　This
  relation　of　dependence　thus　arises　out　of　his　own　regulative　law
  giving　will。
  48。　Mutual　Relations　and　Characteristics　of　the
  Three　Powers。
  The　three　powers　in　the　state；　as　regards　their　relations　to　each
  other；　are；　therefore：　（1）　coordinate　with　one　another　as　so　many
  moral　persons；　and　the　one　is　thus　the　complement　of　the　other　in
  the　way　of　completing　the　constitution　of　the　state；　（2）　they　are
  likewise　subordinate　to　one　another；　so　that　the　one　cannot　at　the
  same　time　usurp　the　function　of　the　other　by　whose　side　it　moves；　each
  having　its　own　principle　and　maintaining　its　authority　in　a　particular
  person；　but　under　the　condition　of　the　will　of　a　superior；　and
  further；　（3）　by　the　union　of　both　these　relations；　they　assign
  distributively　to　every　subject　in　the　state　his　own　rights。
  Considered　as　to　their　respective　dignity；　the　three　powers　may　be
  thus　described。　The　will　of　the　sovereign　legislator；　in　respect　of
  what　constitutes　the　external　mine　and　thine；　is　to　be　regarded　as
  irreprehensible；　the　executive　function　of　the　supreme　ruler　is　to
  be　regarded　as　irresistible；　and　the　judicial　sentence　of　the
  supreme　judge　is　to　be　regarded　as　irreversible；　being　beyond　appeal。
  49。　Distinct　Functions　of　the　Three　Powers。
  Autonomy　of　the　State
  1。　The　executive　power　belongs　to　the　governor　or　regent　of　the
  state；　whether　it　assumes　the　form　of　a　moral　or　individual　person；　as
  the　king　or　prince　（rex；　princeps）。　This　executive　authority；　as　the
  supreme　agent　of　the　state；　appoints　the　magistrates；　and　prescribes
  the　rules　to　the　people；　in　accordance　with　which　individuals　may
  acquire　anything　or　maintain　what　is　their　own　conformably　to　the　law；
  each　case　being　brought　under　its　application。　Regarded　as　a　moral
  person；　this　executive　authority　constitutes　the　government。　The
  orders　issued　by　the　government　to　the　people　and　the　magistrates；
  as　well　as　to　the　higher　ministerial　administrators　of　the　state
  （gubernatio）；　are　rescripts　or　decrees；　and　not　laws；　for　they
  terminate　in　the　decision　of　particular　cases；　and　are　given　forth
  as　unchangeable。　A　government　acting　as　an　executive；　and　at　the
  same　time　laying　down　the　law　as　the　legislative　power；　would　be　a
  despotic　government；　and　would　have　to　be　contradistinguished　from　a
  patriotic　government。　A　patriotic　government；　again；　is　to　be
  distinguished　from　a　paternal　government　（regimen　paternale）　which
  is　the　most　despotic　government　of　all；　the　citizens　being　dealt
  with　by　it　as　mere　children。　A　patriotic　government；　however；　is　one
  in　which　the　state；　while　dealing　with　the　subjects　as　if　they　were
  members　of　a　family；　still　treats　them　likewise　as　citizens；　and
  according　to　laws　that　recognize　their　independence；　each　individual
  possessing　himself　and　not　being　dependent　on　the　absolute　will　of
  another　beside　him　or　above　him。
  2。　The　legislative　authority　ought　not　at　the　same　time　to　be　the
  executive　or　governor；　for　the　governor；　as　administrator；　should
  stand　under　the　authority　of　the　law；　and　i