nothing　like　an　inch　of　chalk　has　accumulated　during　the　life　of　a
  Crania；　and；　on　any　probable　estimate　of　the　length　of　that　life；
  the　chalk　period　must　have　had　a　much　longer　duration　than　that
  thus　roughly　assigned　to　it。
  Thus；　not　only　is　it　certain　that　the　chalk　is　the　mud　of　an
  ancient　sea…bottom；　but　it　is　no　less　certain；　that　the　chalk　sea
  existed　during　an　extremely　long　period；　though　we　may　not　be
  prepared　to　give　a　precise　estimate　of　the　length　of　that　period　in
  years。　　The　relative　duration　is　clear；　though　the　absolute
  duration　may　not　be　definable。　　The　attempt　to　affix　any　precise
  date　to　the　period　at　which　the　chalk　sea　began；　or　ended；　its
  existence；　is　baffled　by　difficulties　of　the　same　kind。　　But　the
  relative　age　of　the　cretaceous　epoch　may　be　determined　with　as
  great　ease　and　certainty　as　the　long　duration　of　that　epoch。
  You　will　have　heard　of　the　interesting　discoveries　recently　made；
  in　various　parts　of　Western　Europe；　of　flint　implements；　obviously
  worked　into　shape　by　human　hands；　under　circumstances　which　show
  conclusively　that　man　is　a　very　ancient　denizen　of　these　regions。
  It　has　been　proved　that　the　old　populations　of　Europe；　whose
  existence　has　been　revealed　to　us　in　this　way；　consisted　of
  savages；　such　as　the　Esquimaux　are　now；　that；　in　the　country　which
  is　now　France；　they　hunted　the　reindeer；　and　were　familiar　with　the
  ways　of　the　mammoth　and　the　bison。　　The　physical　geography　of
  France　was　in　those　days　different　from　what　it　is　nowthe　river
  Somme；＇69＇　for　instance；　having　cut　its　bed　a　hundred　feet　deeper
  between　that　time　and　this；　and；　it　is　probable；　that　the　climate
  was　more　like　that　of　Canada　or　Siberia；　than　that　of　Western
  Europe。
  The　existence　of　these　people　is　forgotten　even　in　the　traditions
  of　the　oldest　historical　nations。　　The　name　and　fame　of　them　had
  utterly　vanished　until　a　few　years　back；　and　the　amount　of　physical
  change　which　has　been　effected　since　their　day；　renders　it　more
  than　probable　that；　venerable　as　are　some　of　the　historical
  nations；　the　workers　of　the　chipped　flints　of　Hoxne　or　of　Amiens　＇70＇
  are　to　them；　as　they　are　to　us；　in　point　of　antiquity。
  But；　if　we　assign　to　these　hoar　relics　of　long…vanished　generations
  of　men　the　greatest　age　that　can　possibly　be　claimed　for　them；　they
  are　not　older　than　the　drift；　or　boulder　clay；　which；　in　comparison
  with　the　chalk；　is　but　a　very　juvenile　deposit。　　You　need　go　no
  further　than　your　own　sea…board　for　evidence　of　this　fact。　　At　one
  of　the　most　charming　spots　on　the　coast　of　Norfolk；　Cromer；　you
  will　see　the　boulder　clay　forming　a　vast　mass；　which　lies　upon　the
  chalk；　and　must　consequently　have　come　into　existence　after　it。
  Huge　boulders　of　chalk　are；　in　fact；　included　in　the　clay；　and　have
  evidently　been　brought　to　the　position　they　now　occupy；　by　the　same
  agency　as　that　which　has　planted　blocks　of　syenite　from　Norway　side
  by　side　with　them。
  The　chalk；　then；　is　certainly　older　than　the　boulder　clay。　　If　you
  ask　how　much；　I　will　again　take　you　no　further　than　the　same　spot
  upon　your　own　coasts　for　evidence。　　I　have　spoken　of　the　boulder
  clay　and　drift　as　resting　upon　the　chalk。　　That　is　not　strictly
  true。　　Interposed　between　the　chalk　and　the　drift　is　a
  comparatively　insignificant　layer；　containing　vegetable　matter。
  But　that　layer　tells　a　wonderful　history。　　It　is　full　of　stumps　of
  trees　standing　as　they　grew。　　Fir…trees　are　there　with　their　cones；
  and　hazel…bushes　with　their　nuts；　there　stand　the　stools　of　oak　and
  yew　trees；　beeches　and　alders。　　Hence　this　stratum　is　appropriately
  called　the　〃forest…bed。〃
  It　is　obvious　that　the　chalk　must　have　been　up…heaved　and　converted
  into　dry　land；　before　the　timber　trees　could　grow　upon　it。　　As　the
  boles　of　some　of　these　trees　are　from　two　to　three　feet　in
  diameter；　it　is　no　less　clear　that　the　dry　land　this　formed
  remained　in　the　same　condition　for　long　ages。　　And　not　only　do　the
  remains　of　stately　oaks　and　well…grown　firs　testify　to　the　duration
  of　this　condition　of　things；　but　additional　evidence　to　the　same
  effect　is　afforded　by　the　abundant　remains　of　elephants；
  rhinoceroses；　hippopotomuses　and　other　great　wild　beasts；　which　it
  has　yielded　to　the　zealous　search　of　such　men　as　the　Rev。　Mr。　Gunn。＇71＇
  When　you　look　at　such　a　collection　as　he　has　formed；　and　bethink
  you　that　these　elephantine　bones　did　veritably　carry　their　owners
  about；　and　these　great　grinders　crunch；　in　the　dark　woods　of　which
  the　forest…bed　is　now　the　only　trace；　it　is　impossible　not　to　feel
  that　they　are　as　good　evidence　of　the　lapse　of　time　as　the　annual
  rings　of　the　tree…stumps。
  Thus　there　is　a　writing　upon　the　walls　of　cliffs　at　Cromer；　and
  whoso　runs　may　read　it。　　It　tells　us；　with　an　authority　which
  cannot　be　impeached；　that　the　ancient　sea…bed　of　the　chalk　sea　was
  raised　up；　and　remained　dry　land；　until　it　was　covered　with　forest；
  stocked　with　the　great　game　whose　spoils　have　rejoiced　your
  geologists。　　How　long　it　remained　in　that　condition　cannot　be　said；
  but　〃the　whirligig　of　time　＇72＇　brought　its　revenges〃　in　those　days
  as　in　these。　　That　dry　land；　with　the　bones　and　teeth　of　generations
  of　long…lived　elephants；　hidden　away　among　the　gnarled　roots　and
  dry　leaves　of　its　ancient　trees；　sank　gradually　to　the　bottom　of
  the　icy　sea；　which　covered　it　with　huge　masses　of　drift　and　boulder
  clay。　　Sea…beasts；　such　as　the　walrus；　now　restricted　to　the
  extreme　north；　paddled　about　where　birds　had　twittered　among　the
  topmost　twigs　of　the　fir…trees。　　How　long　this　state　of　things
  endured　we　know　not；　but　at　length　it　came　to　an　end。　　The　upheaved
  glacial　mud　hardened　into　the　soil　of　modern　Norfolk。　　Forests　grew
  once　more；　the　wolf　and　the　beaver　replaced　the　reindeer　and　the
  elephant；　and　at　length　what　we　call　the　history　of　England　dawned。
  Thus　you　have　within　the　limits　of　your　own　county；　proof　that　the
  chalk　can　justly　claim　a　very　much　greater　antiquity　than　even　the
  oldest　physical　traces　of　mankind。　　But　we　may　go　further　and
  demonstrate；　by　evidence　of　the　same　authority　as　that　which
  testifies　to　the　existence　of　the　father　of　men；　that　the　chalk　is
  vastly　older　than　Adam　himself。
  The　Book　of　Genesis　informs　us　that　Adam；　immediately　upon　his
  creation；　and　before　the　appearance　of　Eve；　was　placed　in　the
  Garden　of　Eden。　　The　problem　of　the　geographical　position　of　Eden
  has　greatly　vexed　the　spirits　of　the　learned　in　such　matters；　but
  there　is　one　point　respecting　which；　so　far　as　I　know；　no
  commentator　has　ever　raised　a　doubt。　　This　is；　that　of　the　four
  rivers　which　are　said　to　run　out　of　it；　Euphrates　and　Hiddekel　＇73＇
  are　identical　with　the　rivers　now　known　by　the　names　of　Euphrates
  and　Tigris。
  But　the　whole　country　in　which　these　mighty　rivers　take　their
  origin；　and　through　which　they　run；　is　composed　of　rocks　which　are
  either　of　the　same　age　as　the　chalk；　or　of　later　date。　　So　that　the
  chalk　must　not　only　have　been　formed；　but；　after　its　formation；　the
  time　required　for　the　deposit　of　these　later　rocks；　and　for　their
  upheaval　into　dry　land；　must　have　elapsed；　before　the　smallest
  brook　which　feeds　the　swift　stream　of　〃the　great　river；　the　river
  of　Babylon；〃＇74＇　began　to　flow。
  Thus；　evidence　which　cannot　be　rebutted；　and　which　need　not　be
  strengthened；　though　if　time　permitted　I　might　indefinitely
  increase　its　quantity；　compels　you　to　believe　that　the　earth；　from
  the　time　of　the　chalk　to　the　present　day；　has　been　the　theatre　of　a
  series　of　changes　as　vast　in　their　amount；　as　they　were　slow　in
  their　progress。　　The　area　on　which　we　stand　has　been　first　sea　and
  then　land；　for　at　least　four　alternations；　and　has　remained　in　each
  of　these　conditions　for　a　period　of　great　length。
  Nor　have　these　wonderful　metamorphoses　of　sea　into　land；　and　of
  land　into　sea；　been　confined　to　one　corner　of　England。　　During　the
  chalk　period；　or　〃cretaceous　epoch；〃　not　one　of　the　present　great
  physical　features　of　the　globe　was　in　existence。　　Our　great
  mountain　ranges；　Pyrenees；　Alps；　Himalayas；　Andes；　have　all　been
  upheaved　since　the　chalk　was　deposited；　and　the　cretaceous　sea
  flowed　over　the　sites　of　Sinai　and　Ararat。
  All　this　is　certain；　because　rocks　of　cretaceous；　or　still　later；
  date　have　shared　in　the　elevatory　movements　which　gave　rise　to
  these　mountain　chains；　and　may　be　found　perched　up；　in　some　cases；
  many　thousand　feet　high　upon　their　flanks。　　And　evidence　of　equal
  cogency　demonstrates　that；　though；　in　Norfolk；　the　forest…bed　rests
  directly　upon　the　chalk；　yet　it　does　so；　not　because　the　period　at
  which　the　forest　grew　immediately　followed　that　at　which　the　chalk
  was　formed；　but　because　an　immense　lapse　of　time；　represented
  elsewhere　by　thousands　of　feet　of　rock；　is　not　indicated　at　Cromer。
  I　must　ask　you　to　believe　that　there　is　no　less　conclusive　proof
  that　a　still　more　prolonged　succession　of　similar　changes　occurred；
  before　th