better　than　their　benighted　ancestors。
  If　this　talk　were　true；　I；　for　one；　should　not　greatly　care　to　toil
  in　the　service　of　natural　knowledge。　　I　think　I　would　just　as　soon
  be　quietly　chipping　my　own　flint　axe；　after　the　manner　of　my
  forefathers　a　few　thousand　years　back；　as　be　troubled　with　the
  endless　malady　of　thought　which　now　infests　us　all；　for　such
  reward。　　But　I　venture　to　say　that　such　views　are　contrary　alike　to
  reason　and　to　fact。　　Those　who　discourse　in　such　fashion　seem　to　me
  to　be　so　intent　upon　trying　to　see　what　is　above　Nature；　or　what　is
  behind　her；　that　they　are　blind　to　what　stares　them　in　the　face　in
  her。
  I　should　not　venture　thus　to　speak　strongly　if　my　justification
  were　not　to　be　found　in　the　simplest　and　most　obvious　facts；if　it
  needed　more　than　an　appeal　to　the　most　notorious　truths　to　justify
  my　assertion；　that　the　improvement　of　natural　knowledge；　whatever
  direction　it　has　taken；　and　however　low　the　aims　of　those　who　may
  have　commenced　ithas　not　only　conferred　practical　benefits　on
  men；　but；　in　so　doing；　has　effected　a　revolution　in　their
  conceptions　of　the　universe　and　of　themselves；　and　has　profoundly
  altered　their　modes　of　thinking　and　their　views　of　right　and　wrong。
  I　say　that　natural　knowledge；　seeking　to　satisfy　natural　wants；　has
  found　the　ideas　which　can　alone　still　spiritual　cravings。　　I　say
  that　natural　knowledge；　in　desiring　to　ascertain　the　laws　of
  comfort；　has　been　driven　to　discover　those　of　conduct；　and　to　lay
  the　foundations　of　a　new　morality。
  Let　us　take　these　points　separately；　and　first；　what　great　ideas
  has　natural　knowledge　introduced　into　men's　minds？
  I　cannot　but　think　that　the　foundations　of　all　natural　knowledge
  were　laid　when　the　reason　of　man　first　came　face　to　face　with　the
  facts　of　Nature；　when　the　savage　first　learned　that　the　fingers　of
  one　hand　are　fewer　than　those　of　both；　that　it　is　shorter　to　cross
  a　stream　than　to　head　it；　that　a　stone　stops　where　it　is　unless　it
  be　moved；　and　that　it　drops　from　the　hand　which　lets　it　go；　that
  light　and　heat　come　and　go　with　the　sun；　that　sticks　burn　away　in　a
  fire；　that　plants　and　animals　grow　and　die；　that　if　he　struck　his
  fellow　savage　a　blow　he　would　make　him　angry；　and　perhaps　get　a
  blow　in　return；　while　if　he　offered　him　a　fruit　he　would　please
  him；　and　perhaps　receive　a　fish　in　exchange。　　When　men　had　acquired
  this　much　knowledge；　the　outlines；　rude　though　they　were；　of
  mathematics；　of　physics；　of　chemistry；　of　biology；　of　moral；
  economical；　and　political　science；　were　sketched。　　Nor　did　the　germ
  of　religion　fail　when　science　began　to　bud。　　Listen　to　words　which；
  though　new；　are　yet　three　thousand　years　old：
  。　。　。　When　in　heaven　the　stars　about　the　moon
  Look　beautiful；　when　all　the　winds　are　laid；
  And　every　height　comes　out；　and　jutting　peak
  And　valley；　and　the　immeasurable　heavens
  Break　open　to　their　highest；　and　all　the　stars
  Shine；　and　the　shepherd　gladdens　in　his　heart。＇44＇
  If　the　half　savage　Greek　could　share　our　feelings　thus　far；　it　is
  irrational　to　doubt　that　he　went　further；　to　find　as　we　do；　that
  upon　that　brief　gladness　there　follows　a　certain　sorrow；the
  little　light　of　awakened　human　intelligence　shines　so　mere　a　spark
  amidst　the　abyss　of　the　unknown　and　unknowable；　seems　so
  insufficient　to　do　more　than　illuminate　the　imperfections　that
  cannot　be　remedied；　the　aspirations　that　cannot　be　realised；　of
  man's　own　nature。　　But　in　this　sadness；　this　consciousness　of　the
  limitation　of　man；　this　sense　of　an　open　secret　which　he　cannot
  penetrate；　lies　the　essence　of　all　religion；　and　the　attempt　to
  embody　it　in　the　forms　furnished　by　the　intellect　is　the　origin　of
  the　higher　theologies。
  Thus　it　seems　impossible　to　imagine　but　that　the　foundations　of　all
  knowledgesecular　or　sacredwere　laid　when　intelligence　dawned；
  though　the　superstructure　remained　for　long　ages　so　slight　and
  feeble　as　to　be　compatible　with　the　existence　of　almost　any　general
  view　respecting　the　mode　of　governance　of　the　universe。　　No　doubt；
  from　the　first；　there　were　certain　phenomena　which；　to　the　rudest
  mind；　presented　a　constancy　of　occurrence；　and　suggested　that　a
  fixed　order　ruled；　at　any　rate；　among　them。　　I　doubt　if　the
  grossest　of　Fetish　worshippers　ever　imagined　that　a　stone　must　have
  a　god　within　it　to　make　it　fall；　or　that　a　fruit　had　a　god　within
  it　to　make　it　taste　sweet。　　With　regard　to　such　matters　as　these；
  it　is　hardly　questionable　that　mankind　from　the　first　took　strictly
  positive　and　scientific　views。
  But；　with　respect　to　all　the　less　familiar　occurrences　which
  present　themselves；　uncultured　man；　no　doubt；　has　always　taken
  himself　as　the　standard　of　comparison；　as　the　centre　and　measure　of
  the　world；　nor　could　be　well　avoid　doing　so。　　And　finding　that　his
  apparently　uncaused　will　has　a　powerful　effect　in　giving　rise　to
  many　occurrences；　he　naturally　enough　ascribed　other　and　greater
  events　to　other　and　greater　volitions　and　came　to　look　upon　the
  world　and　all　that　therein　is；　as　the　product　of　the　volitions　of
  persons　like　himself；　but　stronger；　and　capable　of　being　appeased
  or　angered；　as　he　himself　might　be　soothed　or　irritated。　　Through
  such　conceptions　of　the　plan　and　working　of　the　universe　all
  mankind　have　passed；　or　are　passing。　　And　we　may　now　consider　what
  has　been　the　effect　of　the　improvement　of　natural　knowledge　on　the
  views　of　men　who　have　reached　this　stage；　and　who　have　begun　to
  cultivate　natural　knowledge　with　no　desire　but　that　of　〃increasing
  God's　honour　and　bettering　man's　estate。〃＇45＇
  For　example；　what　could　seem　wiser；　from　a　mere　material　point　of
  view；　more　innocent；　from　a　theological　one；　to　an　ancient　people；
  than　that　they　should　learn　the　exact　succession　of　the　seasons；　as
  warnings　for　their　husbandmen；　or　the　position　of　the　stars；　as
  guides　to　their　rude　navigators？＇46＇　　But　what　has　grown　out　of　this
  search　for　natural　knowledge　of　so　merely　useful　a　character？　　You
  all　know　the　reply。　　Astronomy；which　of　all　sciences　has　filled
  men's　minds　with　general　ideas　of　a　character　most　foreign　to　their
  daily　experience；　and　has；　more　than　any　other；　rendered　it
  impossible　for　them　to　accept　the　beliefs　of　their　fathers。
  Astronomy；which　tells　them　that　this　so　vast　and　seemingly　solid
  earth　is　but　an　atom　among　atoms；　whirling；　no　man　knows　whither；
  through　illimitable　space；　which　demonstrates　that　what　we　call　the
  peaceful　heaven　above　us；　is　but　that　space；　filled　by　an
  infinitely　subtle　matter　whose　particles　are　seething　and　surging；
  like　the　waves　of　an　angry　sea；　which　opens　up　to　us　infinite
  regions　where　nothing　is　known；　or　ever　seems　to　have　been　known；
  but　matter　and　force；　operating　according　to　rigid　rules；　which
  leads　us　to　contemplate　phaenomena　the　very　nature　of　which
  demonstrates　that　they　must　have　had　a　beginning；　and　that　they
  must　have　an　end；　but　the　very　nature　of　which　also　proves　that　the
  beginning　was；　to　our　conceptions　of　time；　infinitely　remote；　and
  that　the　end　is　as　immeasurably　distant。
  But　it　is　not　alone　those　who　pursue　astronomy　who　ask　for　bread
  and　receive　ideas。　　What　more　harmless　than　the　attempt　to　lift　and
  distribute　water　by　pumping　it；　what　more　absolutely　and　grossly
  utilitarian？　　Yet　out　of　pumps　grew　the　discussions　about　Nature's
  abhorrence　of　a　vacuum；　and　then　it　was　discovered　that　Nature　does
  not　abhor　a　vacuum；　but　that　air　has　weight；　and　that　notion　paved
  the　way　for　the　doctrine　that　all　matter　has　weight；　and　that　the
  force　which　produces　weight　is　co…extensive　with　the　universe；in
  short；　to　the　theory　of　universal　gravitation　and　endless　force。
  While　learning　how　to　handle　gases　led　to　the　discovery　of　oxygen；
  and　to　modern　chemistry；　and　to　the　notion　of　the　indestructibility
  of　matter。
  Again；　what　simpler；　or　more　absolutely　practical；　than　the　attempt
  to　keep　the　axle　of　a　wheel　from　heating　when　the　wheel　turns　round
  very　fast？　　How　useful　for　carters　and　gig　drivers　to　know
  something　about　this；　and　how　good　were　it；　if　any　ingenious　person
  would　find　out　the　cause　of　such　phaenomena；　and　thence　educe　a
  general　remedy　for　them。　　Such　an　ingenious　person　was　Count
  Rumford；＇47＇　and　he　and　his　successors　have　landed　us　in　the　theory
  of　the　persistence；　or　indestructibility；　of　force。　　And　in　the
  infinitely　minute；　as　in　the　infinitely　great；　the　seekers　after
  natural　knowledge　of　the　kinds　called　physical　and　chemical；　have
  everywhere　found　a　definite　order　and　succession　of　events　which
  seem　never　to　be　infringed。
  And　how　has　it　fared　with　〃Physick〃　and　Anatomy？　　Have　the
  anatomist；　the　physiologist；　or　the　physician；　whose　business　it
  has　been　to　devote　themselves　assiduously　to　that　eminently
  practical　and　direct　end；　the　alleviation　of　the　sufferings　of
  mankind；have　they　been　able　to　confine　their　vision　more
  absolutely　to　the　strictly　useful？　　I　fear　they　are　the　worst
  offe