means。　Such　is　that　in　the　Oedipus　of　Sophocles；　and　in　the　Iphigenia；
  for　it　was　natural　that　Iphigenia　should　wish　to　dispatch　a　letter。
  These　recognitions　alone　dispense　with　the　artificial　aid　of　tokens　or
  amulets。　Next　come　the　recognitions　by　process　of　reasoning。
  POETICS｜17
  XVII
  In　constructing　the　plot　and　working　it　out　with　the　proper　diction；
  the　poet　should　place　the　scene；　as　far　as　possible；　before　his
  eyes。　In　this　way；　seeing　everything　with　the　utmost　vividness；　as
  if　he　were　a　spectator　of　the　action；　he　will　discover　what　is　in
  keeping　with　it；　and　be　most　unlikely　to　overlook　inconsistencies。　The
  need　of　such　a　rule　is　shown　by　the　fault　found　in　Carcinus。
  Amphiaraus　was　on　his　way　from　the　temple。　This　fact　escaped　the
  observation　of　one　who　did　not　see　the　situation。　On　the　stage；
  however；　the　Piece　failed；　the　audience　being　offended　at　the
  oversight。
  Again；　the　poet　should　work　out　his　play；　to　the　best　of　his
  power；　with　appropriate　gestures；　for　those　who　feel　emotion　are
  most　convincing　through　natural　sympathy　with　the　characters　they
  represent；　and　one　who　is　agitated　storms；　one　who　is　angry　rages；
  with　the　most　lifelike　reality。　Hence　poetry　implies　either　a　happy
  gift　of　nature　or　a　strain　of　madness。　In　the　one　case　a　man　can
  take　the　mould　of　any　character；　in　the　other；　he　is　lifted　out　of　his
  proper　self。
  As　for　the　story；　whether　the　poet　takes　it　ready　made　or　constructs
  it　for　himself；　he　should　first　sketch　its　general　outline；　and　then
  fill　in　the　episodes　and　amplify　in　detail。　The　general　plan　may　be
  illustrated　by　the　Iphigenia。　A　young　girl　is　sacrificed；　she
  disappears　mysteriously　from　the　eyes　of　those　who　sacrificed　her；　she
  is　transported　to　another　country；　where　the　custom　is　to　offer　up
  an　strangers　to　the　goddess。　To　this　ministry　she　is　appointed。　Some
  time　later　her　own　brother　chances　to　arrive。　The　fact　that　the　oracle
  for　some　reason　ordered　him　to　go　there；　is　outside　the　general　plan
  of　the　play。　The　purpose；　again；　of　his　coming　is　outside　the　action
  proper。　However；　he　comes；　he　is　seized；　and；　when　on　the　point　of
  being　sacrificed；　reveals　who　he　is。　The　mode　of　recognition　may　be
  either　that　of　Euripides　or　of　Polyidus；　in　whose　play　he　exclaims
  very　naturally：　'So　it　was　not　my　sister　only；　but　I　too；　who　was
  doomed　to　be　sacrificed'；　and　by　that　remark　he　is　saved。
  After　this；　the　names　being　once　given；　it　remains　to　fill　in　the
  episodes。　We　must　see　that　they　are　relevant　to　the　action。　In　the
  case　of　Orestes；　for　example；　there　is　the　madness　which　led　to　his
  capture；　and　his　deliverance　by　means　of　the　purificatory　rite。　In　the
  drama；　the　episodes　are　short；　but　it　is　these　that　give　extension
  to　Epic　poetry。　Thus　the　story　of　the　Odyssey　can　be　stated　briefly。　A
  certain　man　is　absent　from　home　for　many　years；　he　is　jealously
  watched　by　Poseidon；　and　left　desolate。　Meanwhile　his　home　is　in　a
  wretched　plight…　suitors　are　wasting　his　substance　and　plotting
  against　his　son。　At　length；　tempest…tost；　he　himself　arrives；　he　makes
  certain　persons　acquainted　with　him；　he　attacks　the　suitors　with　his
  own　hand；　and　is　himself　preserved　while　he　destroys　them。　This　is　the
  essence　of　the　plot；　the　rest　is　episode。
  POETICS｜18
  XVIII
  Every　tragedy　falls　into　two　parts…　Complication　　and　Unraveling
  or　Denouement。　Incidents　extraneous　to　the　action　are　frequently
  combined　with　a　portion　of　the　action　proper；　to　form　the
  Complication；　the　rest　is　the　Unraveling。　By　the　Complication　I　mean
  all　that　extends　from　the　beginning　of　the　action　to　the　part　which
  marks　the　turning…point　to　good　or　bad　fortune。　The　Unraveling　is　that
  which　extends　from　the　beginning　of　the　change　to　the　end。　Thus；　in
  the　Lynceus　of　Theodectes；　the　Complication　consists　of　the
  incidents　presupposed　in　the　drama；　the　seizure　of　the　child；　and　then
  again　。。。　＇the　Unraveling＇　extends　from　the　accusation　of　murder　to
  the　end。
  There　are　four　kinds　of　Tragedy：　the　Complex；　depending　entirely
  on　Reversal　of　the　Situation　and　Recognition；　the　Pathetic　（where
  the　motive　is　passion）…　such　as　the　tragedies　on　Ajax　and　Ixion；　the
  Ethical　（where　the　motives　are　ethical）…　such　as　the　Phthiotides　and
  the　Peleus。　The　fourth　kind　is　the　Simple。　＇We　here　exclude　the　purely
  spectacular　element＇；　exemplified　by　the　Phorcides；　the　Prometheus；
  and　scenes　laid　in　Hades。　The　poet　should　endeavor；　if　possible；　to
  combine　all　poetic　elements；　or　failing　that；　the　greatest　number
  and　those　the　most　important；　the　more　so；　in　face　of　the　caviling
  criticism　of　the　day。　For　whereas　there　have　hitherto　been　good　poets；
  each　in　his　own　branch；　the　critics　now　expect　one　man　to　surpass
  all　others　in　their　several　lines　of　excellence。
  In　speaking　of　a　tragedy　as　the　same　or　different；　the　best　test
  to　take　is　the　plot。　Identity　exists　where　the　Complication　and
  Unraveling　are　the　same。　Many　poets　tie　the　knot　well；　but　unravel
  it　Both　arts；　however；　should　always　be　mastered。
  Again；　the　poet　should　remember　what　has　been　often　said；　and　not
  make　an　Epic　structure　into　a　tragedy…　by　an　Epic　structure　I　mean　one
  with　a　multiplicity　of　plots…　as　if；　for　instance；　you　were　to　make
  a　tragedy　out　of　the　entire　story　of　the　Iliad。　In　the　Epic　poem；
  owing　to　its　length；　each　part　assumes　its　proper　magnitude。　In　the
  drama　the　result　is　far　from　answering　to　the　poet's　expectation。
  The　proof　is　that　the　poets　who　have　dramatized　the　whole　story　of　the
  Fall　of　Troy；　instead　of　selecting　portions；　like　Euripides；　or　who
  have　taken　the　whole　tale　of　Niobe；　and　not　a　part　of　her　story；
  like　Aeschylus；　either　fail　utterly　or　meet　with　poor　success　on　the
  stage。　Even　Agathon　has　been　known　to　fail　from　this　one　defect。　In
  his　Reversals　of　the　Situation；　however；　he　shows　a　marvelous　skill　in
  the　effort　to　hit　the　popular　taste…　to　produce　a　tragic　effect　that
  satisfies　the　moral　sense。　This　effect　is　produced　when　the　clever
  rogue；　like　Sisyphus；　is　outwitted；　or　the　brave　villain　defeated。
  Such　an　event　is　probable　in　Agathon's　sense　of　the　word：　'is
  probable；'　he　says；　'that　many　things　should　happen　contrary　to
  probability。'
  The　Chorus　too　should　be　regarded　as　one　of　the　actors；　it　should　be
  an　integral　part　of　the　whole；　and　share　in　the　action；　in　the
  manner　not　of　Euripides　but　of　Sophocles。　As　for　the　later　poets；
  their　choral　songs　pertain　as　little　to　the　subject　of　the　piece　as　to
  that　of　any　other　tragedy。　They　are；　therefore；　sung　as　mere
  interludes…　a　practice　first　begun　by　Agathon。　Yet　what　difference
  is　there　between　introducing　such　choral　interludes；　and
  transferring　a　speech；　or　even　a　whole　act；　from　one　play　to　another。
  POETICS｜19
  XIX
  It　remains　to　speak　of　Diction　and　Thought；　the　other　parts　of
  Tragedy　having　been　already　discussed。　concerning　Thought；　we　may
  assume　what　is　said　in　the　Rhetoric；　to　which　inquiry　the　subject　more
  strictly　belongs。　Under　Thought　is　included　every　effect　which　has
  to　be　produced　by　speech；　the　subdivisions　being：　proof　and
  refutation；　the　excitation　of　the　feelings；　such　as　pity；　fear；　anger；
  and　the　like；　the　suggestion　of　importance　or　its　opposite。　Now；　it　is
  evident　that　the　dramatic　incidents　must　be　treated　from　the　same
  points　of　view　as　the　dramatic　speeches；　when　the　object　is　to　evoke
  the　sense　of　pity；　fear；　importance；　or　probability。　The　only
  difference　is　that　the　incidents　should　speak　for　themselves　without
  verbal　exposition；　while　effects　aimed　at　in　should　be　produced　by　the
  speaker；　and　as　a　result　of　the　speech。　For　what　were　the　business
  of　a　speaker；　if　the　Thought　were　revealed　quite　apart　from　what　he
  says？
  Next；　as　regards　Diction。　One　branch　of　the　inquiry　treats　of　the
  Modes　of　Utterance。　But　this　province　of　knowledge　belongs　to　the
  art　of　Delivery　and　to　the　masters　of　that　science。　It　includes；　for
  instance…　what　is　a　command；　a　prayer；　a　statement；　a　threat；　a
  question；　an　answer；　and　so　forth。　To　know　or　not　to　know　these　things
  involves　no　serious　censure　upon　the　poet's　art。　For　who　can　admit　the
  fault　imputed　to　Homer　by　Protagoras…　that　in　the　words；　'Sing；
  goddess；　of　the　wrath；　he　gives　a　command　under　the　idea　that　he
  utters　a　prayer？　For　to　tell　some　one　to　do　a　thing　or　not　to　do　it
  is；　he　says；　a　command。　We　may；　therefore；　pass　this　over　as　an
  inquiry　that　belongs　to　another　art；　not　to　poetry。
  POETICS｜20
  XX
  Language　in　general　includes　the　following　parts：　Letter；
  Syllable；　Connecting　Word；　Noun；　Verb；　Inflection　or　Case；　Sentence　or
  Phrase。
  A　Letter　is　an　indivisible　sound；　yet　not　every　such　sound；　but　only
  one