mother　her　son；　a　son　his　mother；　or　any　other　deed　of　the　kind　is
  done…　these　are　the　situations　to　be　looked　for　by　the　poet。　He　may
  not　indeed　destroy　the　framework　of　the　received　legends…　the　fact；
  for　instance；　that　Clytemnestra　was　slain　by　Orestes　and　Eriphyle　by
  Alcmaeon…　but　he　ought　to　show　of　his　own；　and　skilfully　handle　the
  traditional。　material。　Let　us　explain　more　clearly　what　is　meant　by
  skilful　handling。
  The　action　may　be　done　consciously　and　with　knowledge　of　the
  persons；　in　the　manner　of　the　older　poets。　It　is　thus　too　that
  Euripides　makes　Medea　slay　her　children。　Or；　again；　the　deed　of　horror
  may　be　done；　but　done　　in　ignorance；　and　the　tie　of　kinship　or
  friendship　be　discovered　afterwards。　The　Oedipus　of　Sophocles　is　an
  example。　Here；　indeed；　the　incident　is　outside　the　drama　proper；　but
  cases　occur　where　it　falls　within　the　action　of　the　play：　one　may　cite
  the　Alcmaeon　of　Astydamas；　or　Telegonus　in　the　Wounded　Odysseus。
  Again；　there　is　a　third　case…　＇to　be　about　to　act　with　knowledge　of
  the　persons　and　then　not　to　act。　The　fourth　case＇　is　when　some　one
  is　about　to　do　an　irreparable　deed　through　ignorance；　and　makes　the
  discovery　before　it　is　done。　These　are　the　only　possible　ways。　For　the
  deed　must　either　be　done　　or　not　done…　and　that　wittingly　or
  unwittingly。　But　of　all　these　ways；　to　be　about　to　act　knowing　the
  persons；　and　then　not　to　act；　is　the　worst。　It　is　shocking　without
  being　tragic；　for　no　disaster　follows　It　is；　therefore；　never；　or　very
  rarely；　found　in　poetry。　One　instance；　however；　is　in　the　Antigone；
  where　Haemon　threatens　to　kill　Creon。　The　next　and　better　way　is
  that　the　deed　should　be　perpetrated。　Still　better；　that　it　should　be
  perpetrated　in　ignorance；　and　the　discovery　made　afterwards。　There
  is　then　nothing　to　shock　us；　while　the　discovery　produces　a
  startling　effect。　The　last　case　is　the　best；　as　when　in　the
  Cresphontes　Merope　is　about　to　slay　her　son；　but；　recognizing　who　he
  is；　spares　his　life。　So　in　the　Iphigenia；　the　sister　recognizes　the
  brother　just　in　time。　Again　in　the　Helle；　the　son　recognizes　the
  mother　when　on　the　point　of　giving　her　up。　This；　then；　is　why　a　few
  families　only；　as　has　been　already　observed；　furnish　the　subjects　of
  tragedy。　It　was　not　art；　but　happy　chance；　that　led　the　poets　in
  search　of　subjects　to　impress　the　tragic　quality　upon　their　plots。
  They　are　compelled；　therefore；　to　have　recourse　to　those　houses
  whose　history　contains　moving　incidents　like　these。
  Enough　has　now　been　said　concerning　the　structure　of　the
  incidents；　and　the　right　kind　of　plot。
  POETICS｜15
  XV
  In　respect　of　Character　there　are　four　things　to　be　aimed　at。　First；
  and　most　important；　it　must　be　good。　Now　any　speech　or　action　that
  manifests　moral　purpose　of　any　kind　will　be　expressive　of　character：
  the　character　will　be　good　if　the　purpose　is　good。　This　rule　is
  relative　to　each　class。　Even　a　woman　may　be　good；　and　also　a　slave；
  though　the　woman　may　be　said　to　be　an　inferior　being；　and　the　slave
  quite　worthless。　The　second　thing　to　aim　at　is　propriety。　There　is　a
  type　of　manly　valor；　but　valor　in　a　woman；　or　unscrupulous
  cleverness　is　inappropriate。　Thirdly；　character　must　be　true　to
  life：　for　this　is　a　distinct　thing　from　goodness　and　propriety；　as
  here　described。　The　fourth　point　is　consistency：　for　though　the
  subject　of　the　imitation；　who　suggested　the　type；　be　inconsistent；
  still　he　must　be　consistently　inconsistent。　As　an　example　of
  motiveless　degradation　of　character；　we　have　Menelaus　in　the
  Orestes；　of　character　indecorous　and　inappropriate；　the　lament　of
  Odysseus　in　the　Scylla；　and　the　speech　of　Melanippe；　of　inconsistency；
  the　Iphigenia　at　Aulis…　for　Iphigenia　the　suppliant　in　no　way
  resembles　her　later　self。
  As　in　the　structure　of　the　plot；　so　too　in　the　portraiture　of
  character；　the　poet　should　always　aim　either　at　the　necessary　or　the
  probable。　Thus　a　person　of　a　given　character　should　speak　or　act　in
  a　given　way；　by　the　rule　either　of　necessity　or　of　probability；　just
  as　this　event　should　follow　that　by　necessary　or　probable　sequence。　It
  is　therefore　evident　that　the　unraveling　of　the　plot；　no　less　than　the
  complication；　must　arise　out　of　the　plot　itself；　it　must　not　be
  brought　about　by　the　Deus　ex　Machina…　as　in　the　Medea；　or　in　the
  return　of　the　Greeks　in　the　Iliad。　The　Deus　ex　Machina　should　be
  employed　only　for　events　external　to　the　drama…　for　antecedent　or
  subsequent　events；　which　lie　beyond　the　range　of　human　knowledge；
  and　which　require　to　be　reported　or　foretold；　for　to　the　gods　we
  ascribe　the　power　of　seeing　all　things。　Within　the　action　there　must
  be　nothing　irrational。　If　the　irrational　cannot　be　excluded；　it　should
  be　outside　the　scope　of　the　tragedy。　Such　is　the　irrational　element
  the　Oedipus　of　Sophocles。
  Again；　since　Tragedy　is　an　imitation　of　persons　who　are　above　the
  common　level；　the　example　of　good　portrait　painters　should　be
  followed。　They；　while　reproducing　the　distinctive　form　of　the
  original；　make　a　likeness　which　is　true　to　life　and　yet　more
  beautiful。　So　too　the　poet；　in　representing　men　who　are　irascible　or
  indolent；　or　have　other　defects　of　character；　should　preserve　the　type
  and　yet　ennoble　it。　In　this　way　Achilles　is　portrayed　by　Agathon　and
  Homer。
  These　then　are　rules　the　poet　should　observe。　Nor　should　he
  neglect　those　appeals　to　the　senses；　which；　though　not　among　the
  essentials；　are　the　concomitants　of　poetry；　for　here　too　there　is　much
  room　for　error。　But　of　this　enough　has　been　said　in　our　published
  treatises。
  POETICS｜16
  XVI
  What　Recognition　is　has　been　already　explained。　We　will　now
  enumerate　its　kinds。
  First；　the　least　artistic　form；　which；　from　poverty　of　wit；　is
  most　commonly　employed…　recognition　by　signs。　Of　these　some　are
  congenital…　such　as　'the　spear　which　the　earth…born　race　bear　on　their
  bodies；'　or　the　stars　introduced　by　Carcinus　in　his　Thyestes。　Others
  are　acquired　after　birth；　and　of　these　some　are　bodily　marks；　as
  scars；　some　external　tokens；　as　necklaces；　or　the　little　ark　in　the
  Tyro　by　which　the　discovery　is　effected。　Even　these　admit　of　more　or
  less　skilful　treatment。　Thus　in　the　recognition　of　Odysseus　by　his
  scar；　the　discovery　is　made　in　one　way　by　the　nurse；　in　another　by　the
  swineherds。　The　use　of　tokens　for　the　express　purpose　of　proof…　and；
  indeed；　any　formal　proof　with　or　without　tokens…　is　a　less　artistic
  mode　of　recognition。　A　better　kind　is　that　which　comes　about　by　a　turn
  of　incident；　as　in　the　Bath　Scene　in　the　Odyssey。
  Next　come　the　recognitions　invented　at　will　by　the　poet；　and　on　that
  account　wanting　in　art。　For　example；　Orestes　in　the　Iphigenia
  reveals　the　fact　that　he　is　Orestes。　She；　indeed；　makes　herself
  known　by　the　letter；　but　he；　by　speaking　himself；　and　saying　what
  the　poet；　not　what　the　plot　requires。　This；　therefore；　is　nearly
  allied　to　the　fault　above　mentioned…　for　Orestes　might　as　well　have
  brought　tokens　with　him。　Another　similar　instance　is　the　'voice　of　the
  shuttle'　in　the　Tereus　of　Sophocles。
  The　third　kind　depends　on　memory　when　the　sight　of　some　object
  awakens　a　feeling：　as　in　the　Cyprians　of　Dicaeogenes；　where　the　hero
  breaks　into　tears　on　seeing　the　picture；　or　again　in　the　Lay　of
  Alcinous；　where　Odysseus；　hearing　the　minstrel　play　the　lyre；
  recalls　the　past　and　weeps；　and　hence　the　recognition。
  The　fourth　kind　is　by　process　of　reasoning。　Thus　in　the　Choephori：
  'Some　one　resembling　me　has　come：　no　one　resembles　me　but　Orestes：
  therefore　Orestes　has　come。'　Such　too　is　the　discovery　made　by
  Iphigenia　in　the　play　of　Polyidus　the　Sophist。　It　was　a　natural
  reflection　for　Orestes　to　make；　'So　I　too　must　die　at　the　altar　like
  my　sister。'　So；　again；　in　the　Tydeus　of　Theodectes；　the　father　says；
  'I　came　to　find　my　son；　and　I　lose　my　own　life。'　So　too　in　the
  Phineidae：　the　women；　on　seeing　the　place；　inferred　their　fate…
  'Here　we　are　doomed　to　die；　for　here　we　were　cast　forth。'　Again；　there
  is　a　composite　kind　of　recognition　involving　false　inference　on　the
  part　of　one　of　the　characters；　as　in　the　Odysseus　Disguised　as　a
  Messenger。　A　said　＇that　no　one　else　was　able　to　bend　the　bow；　。。。
  hence　B　（the　disguised　Odysseus）　imagined　that　A　would＇　recognize
  the　bow　which；　in　fact；　he　had　not　seen；　and　to　bring　about　a
  recognition　by　this　means…　the　expectation　that　A　would　recognize
  the　bow…　is　false　inference。
  But；　of　all　recognitions；　the　best　is　that　which　arises　from　the
  incidents　themselves；　where　the　startling　discovery　is　made　by　natural
  means。　Such　is　that　in　the　Oedipus　of　Sophocles；　and　in　the　Iphigenia；
  for　it　was　natural　that　Iphigenia　should　wish　to　dispatch　a　letter。
  These　re