the　language　of　civic　life；　the　poets　of　our　time；　the　language　of　the
  rhetoricians。　Character　is　that　which　reveals　moral　purpose；　showing
  what　kind　of　things　a　man　chooses　or　avoids。　Speeches；　therefore；
  which　do　not　make　this　manifest；　or　in　which　the　speaker　does　not
  choose　or　avoid　anything　whatever；　are　not　expressive　of　character。
  Thought；　on　the　other　hand；　is　found　where　something　is　proved　to　be
  or　not　to　be；　or　a　general　maxim　is　enunciated。
  Fourth　among　the　elements　enumerated　comes　Diction；　by　which　I　mean；
  as　has　been　already　said；　the　expression　of　the　meaning　in　words；
  and　its　essence　is　the　same　both　in　verse　and　prose。
  Of　the　remaining　elements　Song　holds　the　chief　place　among　the
  embellishments
  The　Spectacle　has；　indeed；　an　emotional　attraction　of　its　own；
  but；　of　all　the　parts；　it　is　the　least　artistic；　and　connected　least
  with　the　art　of　poetry。　For　the　power　of　Tragedy；　we　may　be　sure；　is
  felt　even　apart　from　representation　and　actors。　Besides；　the
  production　of　spectacular　effects　depends　more　on　the　art　of　the　stage
  machinist　than　on　that　of　the　poet。
  POETICS｜7
  VII
  These　principles　being　established；　let　us　now　discuss　the　proper
  structure　of　the　Plot；　since　this　is　the　first　and　most　important
  thing　in　Tragedy。
  Now；　according　to　our　definition　Tragedy　is　an　imitation　of　an
  action　that　is　complete；　and　whole；　and　of　a　certain　magnitude；　for
  there　may　be　a　whole　that　is　wanting　in　magnitude。　A　whole　is　that
  which　has　a　beginning；　a　middle；　and　an　end。　A　beginning　is　that　which
  does　not　itself　follow　anything　by　causal　necessity；　but　after　which
  something　naturally　is　or　comes　to　be。　An　end；　on　the　contrary；　is
  that　which　itself　naturally　follows　some　other　thing；　either　by
  necessity；　or　as　a　rule；　but　has　nothing　following　it。　A　middle　is
  that　which　follows　something　as　some　other　thing　follows　it。　A　well
  constructed　plot；　therefore；　must　neither　begin　nor　end　at
  haphazard；　but　conform　to　these　principles。
  Again；　a　beautiful　object；　whether　it　be　a　living　organism　or　any
  whole　composed　of　parts；　must　not　only　have　an　orderly　arrangement
  of　parts；　but　must　also　be　of　a　certain　magnitude；　for　beauty
  depends　on　magnitude　and　order。　Hence　a　very　small　animal　organism
  cannot　be　beautiful；　for　the　view　of　it　is　confused；　the　object
  being　seen　in　an　almost　imperceptible　moment　of　time。　Nor；　again；
  can　one　of　vast　size　be　beautiful；　for　as　the　eye　cannot　take　it　all
  in　at　once；　the　unity　and　sense　of　the　whole　is　lost　for　the
  spectator；　as　for　instance　if　there　were　one　a　thousand　miles　long。
  As；　therefore；　in　the　case　of　animate　bodies　and　organisms　a　certain
  magnitude　is　necessary；　and　a　magnitude　which　may　be　easily　embraced
  in　one　view；　so　in　the　plot；　a　certain　length　is　necessary；　and　a
  length　which　can　be　easily　embraced　by　the　memory。　The　limit　of　length
  in　relation　to　dramatic　competition　and　sensuous　presentment　is　no
  part　of　artistic　theory。　For　had　it　been　the　rule　for　a　hundred
  tragedies　to　compete　together；　the　performance　would　have　been
  regulated　by　the　water…clock…　as　indeed　we　are　told　was　formerly　done。
  But　the　limit　as　fixed　by　the　nature　of　the　drama　itself　is　this：
  the　greater　the　length；　the　more　beautiful　will　the　piece　be　by　reason
  of　its　size；　provided　that　the　whole　be　perspicuous。　And　to　define　the
  matter　roughly；　we　may　say　that　the　proper　magnitude　is　comprised
  within　such　limits；　that　the　sequence　of　events；　according　to　the
  law　of　probability　or　necessity；　will　admit　of　a　change　from　bad
  fortune　to　good；　or　from　good　fortune　to　bad。
  POETICS｜8
  VIII
  Unity　of　plot　does　not；　as　some　persons　think；　consist　in　the
  unity　of　the　hero。　For　infinitely　various　are　the　incidents　in　one
  man's　life　which　cannot　be　reduced　to　unity；　and　so；　too；　there　are
  many　actions　of　one　man　out　of　which　we　cannot　make　one　action。
  Hence　the　error；　as　it　appears；　of　all　poets　who　have　composed　a
  Heracleid；　a　Theseid；　or　other　poems　of　the　kind。　They　imagine　that　as
  Heracles　was　one　man；　the　story　of　Heracles　must　also　be　a　unity。
  But　Homer；　as　in　all　else　he　is　of　surpassing　merit；　here　too…　whether
  from　art　or　natural　genius…　seems　to　have　happily　discerned　the　truth。
  In　composing　the　Odyssey　he　did　not　include　all　the　adventures　of
  Odysseus…　such　as　his　wound　on　Parnassus；　or　his　feigned　madness　at
  the　mustering　of　the　host…　incidents　between　which　there　was　no
  necessary　or　probable　connection：　but　he　made　the　Odyssey；　and
  likewise　the　Iliad；　to　center　round　an　action　that　in　our　sense　of　the
  word　is　one。　As　therefore；　in　the　other　imitative　arts；　the
  imitation　is　one　when　the　object　imitated　is　one；　so　the　plot；　being
  an　imitation　of　an　action；　must　imitate　one　action　and　that　a　whole；
  the　structural　union　of　the　parts　being　such　that；　if　any　one　of
  them　is　displaced　or　removed；　the　whole　will　be　disjointed　and
  disturbed。　For　a　thing　whose　presence　or　absence　makes　no　visible
  difference；　is　not　an　organic　part　of　the　whole。
  POETICS｜9
  IX
  It　is；　moreover；　evident　from　what　has　been　said；　that　it　is　not　the
  function　of　the　poet　to　relate　what　has　happened；　but　what　may　happen…
  what　is　possible　according　to　the　law　of　probability　or　necessity。　The
  poet　and　the　historian　differ　not　by　writing　in　verse　or　in　prose。　The
  work　of　Herodotus　might　be　put　into　verse；　and　it　would　still　be　a
  species　of　history；　with　meter　no　less　than　without　it。　The　true
  difference　is　that　one　relates　what　has　happened；　the　other　what　may
  happen。　Poetry；　therefore；　is　a　more　philosophical　and　a　higher
  thing　than　history：　for　poetry　tends　to　express　the　universal；　history
  the　particular。　By　the　universal　I　mean　how　a　person　of　a　certain　type
  on　occasion　speak　or　act；　according　to　the　law　of　probability　or
  necessity；　and　it　is　this　universality　at　which　poetry　aims　in　the
  names　she　attaches　to　the　personages。　The　particular　is…　for
  example…　what　Alcibiades　did　or　suffered。　In　Comedy　this　is　already
  apparent：　for　here　the　poet　first　constructs　the　plot　on　the　lines
  of　probability；　and　then　inserts　characteristic　names…　unlike　the
  lampooners　who　write　about　particular　individuals。　But　tragedians
  still　keep　to　real　names；　the　reason　being　that　what　is　possible　is
  credible：　what　has　not　happened　we　do　not　at　once　feel　sure　to　be
  possible；　but　what　has　happened　is　manifestly　possible：　otherwise　it
  would　not　have　happened。　Still　there　are　even　some　tragedies　in
  which　there　are　only　one　or　two　well…known　names；　the　rest　being
  fictitious。　In　others；　none　are　well　known…　as　in　Agathon's　Antheus；
  where　incidents　and　names　alike　are　fictitious；　and　yet　they　give　none
  the　less　pleasure。　We　must　not；　therefore；　at　all　costs　keep　to　the
  received　legends；　which　are　the　usual　subjects　of　Tragedy。　Indeed；
  it　would　be　absurd　to　attempt　it；　for　even　subjects　that　are　known　are
  known　only　to　a　few；　and　yet　give　pleasure　to　all。　It　clearly
  follows　that　the　poet　or　'maker'　should　be　the　maker　of　plots　rather
  than　of　verses；　since　he　is　a　poet　because　he　imitates；　and　what　he
  imitates　are　actions。　And　even　if　he　chances　to　take　a　historical
  subject；　he　is　none　the　less　a　poet；　for　there　is　no　reason　why　some
  events　that　have　actually　happened　should　not　conform　to　the　law　of
  the　probable　and　possible；　and　in　virtue　of　that　quality　in　them　he　is
  their　poet　or　maker。
  Of　all　plots　and　actions　the　episodic　are　the　worst。　I　call　a　plot
  'episodic'　in　which　the　episodes　or　acts　succeed　one　another　without
  probable　or　necessary　sequence。　Bad　poets　compose　such　pieces　by　their
  own　fault；　good　poets；　to　please　the　players；　for；　as　they　write
  show　pieces　for　competition；　they　stretch　the　plot　beyond　its
  capacity；　and　are　often　forced　to　break　the　natural　continuity。
  But　again；　Tragedy　is　an　imitation　not　only　of　a　complete　action；
  but　of　events　inspiring　fear　or　pity。　Such　an　effect　is　best
  produced　when　the　events　come　on　us　by　surprise；　and　the　effect　is
  heightened　when；　at　the　same　time；　they　follows　as　cause　and　effect。
  The　tragic　wonder　will　then　be　greater　than　if　they　happened　of
  themselves　or　by　accident；　for　even　coincidences　are　most　striking
  when　they　have　an　air　of　design。　We　may　instance　the　statue　of　Mitys
  at　Argos；　which　fell　upon　his　murderer　while　he　was　a　spectator　at　a
  festival；　and　killed　him。　Such　events　seem　not　to　be　due　to　mere
  chance。　Plots；　therefore；　constructed　on　these　principles　are
  necessarily　the　best。
  POETICS｜10
  X
  Plots　are　either　Simple　or　Complex；　for　the　actions　in　real　life；　of
  which　the　plots　are　an　imitation；　obviously　show　a　similar
  distinction。　An　action　which　is　one　and　continuous　in　the　sense
  abov