POETICS
  by　Aristotle
  Translated　by　S。　H。　Butcher
  POETICS｜1
  I
  I　PROPOSE　to　treat　of　Poetry　in　itself　and　of　its　various　kinds；
  noting　the　essential　quality　of　each；　to　inquire　into　the　structure　of
  the　plot　as　requisite　to　a　good　poem；　into　the　number　and　nature　of
  the　parts　of　which　a　poem　is　composed；　and　similarly　into　whatever
  else　falls　within　the　same　inquiry。　Following；　then；　the　order　of
  nature；　let　us　begin　with　the　principles　which　come　first。
  Epic　poetry　and　Tragedy；　Comedy　also　and　Dithyrambic　poetry；　and　the
  music　of　the　flute　and　of　the　lyre　in　most　of　their　forms；　are　all
  in　their　general　conception　modes　of　imitation。　They　differ；
  however；　from　one　another　in　three　respects…　the　medium；　the
  objects；　the　manner　or　mode　of　imitation；　being　in　each　case　distinct。
  For　as　there　are　persons　who；　by　conscious　art　or　mere　habit；
  imitate　and　represent　various　objects　through　the　medium　of　color
  and　form；　or　again　by　the　voice；　so　in　the　arts　above　mentioned；　taken
  as　a　whole；　the　imitation　is　produced　by　rhythm；　language；　or
  'harmony；'　either　singly　or　combined。
  Thus　in　the　music　of　the　flute　and　of　the　lyre；　'harmony'　and　rhythm
  alone　are　employed；　also　in　other　arts；　such　as　that　of　the　shepherd's
  pipe；　which　are　essentially　similar　to　these。　In　dancing；　rhythm　alone
  is　used　without　'harmony'；　for　even　dancing　imitates　character；
  emotion；　and　action；　by　rhythmical　movement。
  There　is　another　art　which　imitates　by　means　of　language　alone；
  and　that　either　in　prose　or　verse…　which　verse；　again；　may　either
  combine　different　meters　or　consist　of　but　one　kind…　but　this　has
  hitherto　been　without　a　name。　For　there　is　no　common　term　we　could
  apply　to　the　mimes　of　Sophron　and　Xenarchus　and　the　Socratic　dialogues
  on　the　one　hand；　and；　on　the　other；　to　poetic　imitations　in　iambic；
  elegiac；　or　any　similar　meter。　People　do；　indeed；　add　the　word　'maker'
  or　'poet'　to　the　name　of　the　meter；　and　speak　of　elegiac　poets；　or
  epic　（that　is；　hexameter）　poets；　as　if　it　were　not　the　imitation
  that　makes　the　poet；　but　the　verse　that　entitles　them　all　to　the　name。
  Even　when　a　treatise　on　medicine　or　natural　science　is　brought　out
  in　verse；　the　name　of　poet　is　by　custom　given　to　the　author；　and　yet
  Homer　and　Empedocles　have　nothing　in　common　but　the　meter；　so　that
  it　would　be　right　to　call　the　one　poet；　the　other　physicist　rather
  than　poet。　On　the　same　principle；　even　if　a　writer　in　his　poetic
  imitation　were　to　combine　all　meters；　as　Chaeremon　did　in　his　Centaur；
  which　is　a　medley　composed　of　meters　of　all　kinds；　we　should　bring　him
  too　under　the　general　term　poet。
  So　much　then　for　these　distinctions。
  There　are；　again；　some　arts　which　employ　all　the　means　above
  mentioned…　namely；　rhythm；　tune；　and　meter。　Such　are　Dithyrambic　and
  Nomic　poetry；　and　also　Tragedy　and　Comedy；　but　between　them　originally
  the　difference　is；　that　in　the　first　two　cases　these　means　are　all
  employed　in　combination；　in　the　latter；　now　one　means　is　employed；　now
  another。
  Such；　then；　are　the　differences　of　the　arts　with　respect　to　the
  medium　of　imitation
  POETICS｜2
  II
  Since　the　objects　of　imitation　are　men　in　action；　and　these　men　must
  be　either　of　a　higher　or　a　lower　type　（for　moral　character　mainly
  answers　to　these　divisions；　goodness　and　badness　being　the
  distinguishing　marks　of　moral　differences）；　it　follows　that　we　must
  represent　men　either　as　better　than　in　real　life；　or　as　worse；　or　as
  they　are。　It　is　the　same　in　painting。　Polygnotus　depicted　men　as
  nobler　than　they　are；　Pauson　as　less　noble；　Dionysius　drew　them　true
  to　life。
  Now　it　is　evident　that　each　of　the　modes　of　imitation　above
  mentioned　will　exhibit　these　differences；　and　become　a　distinct　kind
  in　imitating　objects　that　are　thus　distinct。　Such　diversities　may　be
  found　even　in　dancing；　flute…playing；　and　lyre…playing。　So　again　in
  language；　whether　prose　or　verse　unaccompanied　by　music。　Homer；　for
  example；　makes　men　better　than　they　are；　Cleophon　as　they　are；　Hegemon
  the　Thasian；　the　inventor　of　parodies；　and　Nicochares；　the　author　of
  the　Deiliad；　worse　than　they　are。　The　same　thing　holds　good　of
  Dithyrambs　and　Nomes；　here　too　one　may　portray　different　types；　as
  Timotheus　and　Philoxenus　differed　in　representing　their　Cyclopes。
  The　same　distinction　marks　off　Tragedy　from　Comedy；　for　Comedy　aims　at
  representing　men　as　worse；　Tragedy　as　better　than　in　actual　life。
  POETICS｜3
  III
  There　is　still　a　third　difference…　the　manner　in　which　each　of　these
  objects　may　be　imitated。　For　the　medium　being　the　same；　and　the
  objects　the　same；　the　poet　may　imitate　by　narration…　in　which　case
  he　can　either　take　another　personality　as　Homer　does；　or　speak　in
  his　own　person；　unchanged…　or　he　may　present　all　his　characters　as
  living　and　moving　before　us。
  These；　then；　as　we　said　at　the　beginning；　are　the　three
  differences　which　distinguish　artistic　imitation…　the　medium；　the
  objects；　and　the　manner。　So　that　from　one　point　of　view；　Sophocles
  is　an　imitator　of　the　same　kind　as　Homer…　for　both　imitate　higher
  types　of　character；　from　another　point　of　view；　of　the　same　kind　as
  Aristophanes…　for　both　imitate　persons　acting　and　doing。　Hence；　some
  say；　the　name　of　'drama'　is　given　to　such　poems；　as　representing
  action。　For　the　same　reason　the　Dorians　claim　the　invention　both　of
  Tragedy　and　Comedy。　The　claim　to　Comedy　is　put　forward　by　the
  Megarians…　not　only　by　those　of　Greece　proper；　who　allege　that　it
  originated　under　their　democracy；　but　also　by　the　Megarians　of　Sicily；
  for　the　poet　Epicharmus；　who　is　much　earlier　than　Chionides　and
  Magnes；　belonged　to　that　country。　Tragedy　too　is　claimed　by　certain
  Dorians　of　the　Peloponnese。　In　each　case　they　appeal　to　the　evidence
  of　language。　The　outlying　villages；　they　say；　are　by　them　called
  komai；　by　the　Athenians　demoi：　and　they　assume　that　comedians　were
  so　named　not　from　komazein；　'to　revel；'　but　because　they　wandered　from
  village　to　village　（kata　komas）；　being　excluded　contemptuously　from
  the　city。　They　add　also　that　the　Dorian　word　for　'doing'　is　dran；
  and　the　Athenian；　prattein。
  This　may　suffice　as　to　the　number　and　nature　of　the　various　modes　of
  imitation。
  POETICS｜4
  IV
  Poetry　in　general　seems　to　have　sprung　from　two　causes；　each　of　them
  lying　deep　in　our　nature。　First；　the　instinct　of　imitation　is
  implanted　in　man　from　childhood；　one　difference　between　him　and
  other　animals　being　that　he　is　the　most　imitative　of　living　creatures；
  and　through　imitation　learns　his　earliest　lessons；　and　no　less
  universal　is　the　pleasure　felt　in　things　imitated。　We　have　evidence　of
  this　in　the　facts　of　experience。　Objects　which　in　themselves　we　view
  with　pain；　we　delight　to　contemplate　when　reproduced　with　minute
  fidelity：　such　as　the　forms　of　the　most　ignoble　animals　and　of　dead
  bodies。　The　cause　of　this　again　is；　that　to　learn　gives　the
  liveliest　pleasure；　not　only　to　philosophers　but　to　men　in　general；
  whose　capacity；　however；　of　learning　is　more　limited。　Thus　the
  reason　why　men　enjoy　seeing　a　likeness　is；　that　in　contemplating　it
  they　find　themselves　learning　or　inferring；　and　saying　perhaps；　'Ah；
  that　is　he。'　For　if　you　happen　not　to　have　seen　the　original；　the
  pleasure　will　be　due　not　to　the　imitation　as　such；　but　to　the
  execution；　the　coloring；　or　some　such　other　cause。
  Imitation；　then；　is　one　instinct　of　our　nature。　Next；　there　is　the
  instinct　for　'harmony'　and　rhythm；　meters　being　manifestly　sections　of
  rhythm。　Persons；　therefore；　starting　with　this　natural　gift
  developed　by　degrees　their　special　aptitudes；　till　their　rude
  improvisations　gave　birth　to　Poetry。
  Poetry　now　diverged　in　two　directions；　according　to　the　individual
  character　of　the　writers。　The　graver　spirits　imitated　noble　actions；
  and　the　actions　of　good　men。　The　more　trivial　sort　imitated　the
  actions　of　meaner　persons；　at　first　composing　satires；　as　the　former
  did　hymns　to　the　gods　and　the　praises　of　famous　men。　A　poem　of　the
  satirical　kind　cannot　indeed　be　put　down　to　any　author　earlier　than
  Homer；　though　many　such　writers　probably　there　were。　But　from　Homer
  onward；　instances　can　be　cited…　his　own　Margites；　for　example；　and
  other　similar　compositions。　The　appropriate　meter　was　also　here
  introduced；　hence　the　measure　is　still　called　the　iambic　or　lampooning
  measure；　being　that　in　which　people　lampooned　one　another。　Thus　the
  older　poets　were　distinguished　as　writers　of　heroic　or　of　lampooning
  verse。
  As；　in　the　serious　style；　Homer　is　pre…eminent　among　poets；　for　he
  alone　combined　dramatic　form　wit