d　most　of　the　recognised　artists　of　the　period；　lent　their　aid　to　that　boldly…　planned　but　unhappily…executed　〃Shakespeare〃　of　Boydell；〃black　and　ghastly　gallery　of　murky　Opies；　glum　Northcotes；　straddling　Fuselis；〃　as　Thackeray　calls　it。　　They　are　certainly　not　enlivening…　…those　cumbrous　〃atlas〃　folios　of　1803…5；　and　they　helped　to　ruin　the　worthy　alderman。　　Even　courtly　Sir　Joshua　is　clearly　ill　at　ease　among　the　pushing　Hamiltons　and　Mortimers；　and；　were　it　not　for　the　whimsical　discovery　that　Westall's　〃Ghost　of　Caesar〃　strangely　resembles　Mr。　Gladstone；　there　would　be　no　resting…place　for　the　modern　student　of　these　dismal　masterpieces。　　The　truth　is；　Reynolds　excepted；　there　were　no　contemporary　painters　strong　enough　for　the　task；　and　the　honours　of　the　enterprise　belong　almost　exclusively　to　Smirke's　〃Seven　Ages〃　and　one　or　two　plates　from　the　lighter　comedies。　　The　great　〃Bible〃　of　Macklin；　a　rival　and　even　more　incongruous　publication；　upon　which　some　of　the　same　designers　were　employed；　has　fallen　into　completer　oblivion。　　A　rather　better　fate　attended　another　book　of　this　class；　which；　although　belonging　to　a　later　period；　may　be　briefly　referred　to　here。　　The　〃Milton〃　of　John　Martin　has　distinct　individuality；　and　some　of　the　needful　qualities　of　imagination。　　Nevertheless；　posterity　has　practically　decided　that　scenic　grandeur　and　sombre　effects　alone　are　not　a　sufficient　pictorial　equipment　for　the　varied　story　of　〃Paradise　Lost。〃
  It　is　to　Boydell　of　the　Shakespeare　gallery　that　we　owe　the　〃Liber　Veritatis〃　of　Claude；　engraved　by　Richard　Earlom；　and　indirectly；　since　rivalry　of　Claude　prompted　the　attempt；　the　famous　〃Liber　Studiorum〃　of　Turner。　　Neither　of　these；　howeverwhich；　like　the　〃Rivers　of　France〃　and　the　〃Picturesque　Views　in　England　and　Wales〃　of　the　latter　artist；　are　collections　of　engravings　rather　than　illustrated　booksbelongs　to　the　present　purpose。　　But　Turner's　name　may　fitly　serve　to　introduce　those　once　familiar　〃Annuals〃　and　〃Keepsakes；〃　that；　beginning　in　1823　with　Ackermann's　〃Forget…me…　Not；〃　enjoyed　a　popularity　of　more　than　thirty　years。　　Their　general　characteristics　have　been　pleasantly　satirised　in　Thackeray's　account　of　the　elegant　miscellany　of　Bacon　the　publisher；　to　which　Mr。　Arthur　Pendennis　contributed　his　pretty　poem　of　〃The　Church　Porch。〃　　His　editress；　it　will　be　remembered；　was　the　Lady　Violet　Lebas；　and　his　colleagues　the　Honourable　Percy　Popjoy；　Lord　Dodo；　and　the　gifted　Bedwin　Sands；　whose　〃Eastern　Ghazuls〃　lent　so　special　a　distinction　to　the　volume　in　watered…silk　binding。　　The　talented　authors；　it　is　true；　were　in　most　cases　under　the　disadvantage　of　having　to　write　to　the　plates　of　the　talented　artists；　a　practice　which　even　now　is　not　extinct；　though　it　is　scarcely　considered　favourable　to　literary　merit。　　And　the　real　〃Annuals〃　were　no　exception　to　the　rule。　　As　a　matter　of　fact；　their　general　literary　merit　was　not　obtrusive；　although；　of　course；　they　sometimes　contained　work　which　afterwards　became　famous。　　They　are　now　so　completely　forgotten　and　out　of　date；　that　one　scarcely　expects　to　find　that　Wordsworth；　Coleridge；　Macaulay；　and　Southey；　were　among　the　occasional　contributors。　　Lamb's　beautiful　〃Album　verses〃　appeared　in　the　〃Bijou；〃　Scott's　〃Bonnie　Dundee〃　in　the　〃Christmas　Box；〃　and　Tennyson's　〃St。　Agnes'　Eve〃　in　the　〃Keepsake。〃　　But　the　plates　were；　after　all；　the　leading　attraction。　　These；　prepared　for　the　most　part　under　the　superintendence　of　the　younger　Heath；　and　executed　on　the　steel　which　by　this　time　had　supplanted　the　old　〃coppers；〃　were　supplied　by；　or　were　〃after；〃　almost　every　contemporary　artist　of　note。　　Stothard；　now　growing　old　and　past　his　prime；　Turner；　Etty；　Stanfield；　Leslie；　Roberts；　Danby；　Maclise；　Lawrence；　Cattermole；　and　numbers　of　others；　found　profitable　labour　in　this　fashionable　field　until　1856；　when　the　last　of　the　〃Annuals〃　disappeared；　driven　from　the　market　by　the　rapid　development　of　wood　engraving。　　About　a　million；　it　is　roughly　estimated；　was　squandered　in　producing　them。
  In　connection　with　the　〃Annuals〃　must　be　mentioned　two　illustrated　books　which　were　in　all　probability　suggested　by　themthe　〃Poems〃　and　〃Italy〃　of　Rogers。　　The　designs　to　these　are　chiefly　by　Turner　and　Stothard；　although　there　are　a　few　by　Prout　and　others。　Stothard's　have　been　already　referred　to；　Turner's　are　almost　universally　held　to　be　the　most　successful　of　his　many　vignettes。　It　has　been　truly　saidin　a　recent　excellent　life　of　this　artist　｛10｝that　it　would　be　difficult　to　find　in　the　whole　of　his　works　two　really　greater　than　the　〃Alps　at　Daybreak；〃　and　the　〃Datur　Hora　Quieti；〃　in　the　former　of　these　volumes。　　Almost　equally　beautiful　are　the　〃Valombre　Falls〃　and　〃Tornaro's　misty　brow。〃　　Of　the　〃Italy〃　set　Mr。　Ruskin　writes：…　〃They　are　entirely　exquisite；　poetical　in　the　highest　and　purest　sense；　exemplary　and　delightful　beyond　all　praise。〃　　To　such　words　it　is　not　possible　to　add　much。　　But　it　is　pretty　clear　that　the　poetical　vitality　of　Rogers　was　secured　by　these　well…timed　illustrations；　over　which　he　is　admitted　by　his　nephew　Mr。　Sharpe　to　have　spent　about　7000　pounds；　and　far　larger　sums　have　been　named　by　good　authorities。　　The　artist　received　from　fifteen　to　twenty　guineas　for　each　of　the　drawings；　the　engravers　（Goodall；　Miller；　Wallis；　Smith；　and　others）；　sixty　guineas　a　plate。　The　〃Poems〃　and　the　〃Italy；〃　in　the　original　issues　of　1830　and　1834；　are　still　precious　to　collectors；　and　are　likely　to　remain　so。　Turner　also　illustrated　Scott；　Milton；　Campbell；　and　Byron；　but　this　series　of　designs　has　not　received　equal　commendation　from　his　greatest　eulogist；　who　declares　them　to　be　〃much　more　laboured；　and　more　or　less　artificial　and　unequal。〃　　Among　the　numerous　imitations　directly　induced　by　the　Rogers　books　was　the　〃Lyrics　of　the　Heart；〃　by　Alaric　Attila　Watts；　a　forgotten　versifier　and　sometime　editor　of　〃Annuals；〃　but　it　did　not　meet　with　similar　success。
  Many　illustrated　works；　originating　in　the　perfection　and　opportunities　of　engraving　on　metal；　are　necessarily　unnoticed　in　this　rapid　summary。　　As　far；　however；　as　book…illustration　is　concerned；　copper　and　steel　plate　engraving　may　be　held　to　have　gone　out　of　fashion　with　the　〃Annuals。〃　　It　is　still；　indeed；　to　be　found　lingering　in　that　mine　of　modern　art…booksthe　〃Art　Journal；〃　and；　not　so　very　long　ago；　it　made　a　sumptuous　and　fugitive　reappearance　in　Dore's　〃Idylls　of　the　King；〃　Birket　Foster's　〃Hood；〃　and　one　or　two　other　imposing　volumes。　　But　it　was　badly　injured　by　modern　wood…engraving；　it　has　since　been　crippled　for　life　by　photography；　and　it　is　more　than　probable　that　the　present　rapid　rise　of　modern　etching　will　give　it　the　coup　de　grace。　｛11｝
  By　the　end　of　the　seventeenth　century　the　art　of　engraving　on　wood　had　fallen　into　disuse。　　Writing　circa　1770；　Horace　Walpole　goes　so　far　as　to　say　that　it　〃never　was　executed　in　any　perfection　in　England；〃　and；　speaking　afterwards　of　Papillon's　〃Traite　de　la　Gravure；〃　1766；　he　takes　occasion　to　doubt　if　that　author　would　ever　〃persuade　the　world　to　return　to　wooden　cuts。〃　　Nevertheless；　with　Bewick；　a　few　years　later；　wood…engraving　took　a　fresh　departure　so　conspicuous　that　it　amounts　to　a　revival。　　In　what　this　consisted　it　is　clearly　impossible　to　show　here　with　any　sufficiency　of　detail；　but　between　the　method　of　the　old　wood…cutters　who　reproduced　the　drawings　of　Durer；　and　the　method　of　the　Newcastle　artist；　there　are　two　marked　and　well…defined　differences。　　One　of　these　is　a　difference　in　the　preparation　of　the　wood　and　the　tool　employed。　The　old　wood…cutters　carved　their　designs　with　knives　and　chisels　on　strips　of　wood　sawn　lengthwisethat　is　to　say；　upon　the　PLANK；　Bewick　used　a　graver；　and　worked　upon　slices　of　box　or　pear　cut　across　the　grain；that　is　to　say　upon　the　END　of　the　wood。　　The　other　difference；　of　which　Bewick　is　said　to　have　been　the　inventor；　is　less　easy　to　describe。　　It　consisted　in　the　employment　of　what　is　technically　known　as　〃white　line。〃　　In　all　antecedent　wood…cutting　the　cutter　had　simply　cleared　away　those　portions　of　the　block　left　bare　by　the　design；　so　that　the　design　remained　in　relief　to　be　printed　from　like　type。　　Using　the　smooth　box　block　as　a　uniform　surface　from　which；　if　covered　with　printing　ink；　a　uniformly　black　impression　might　be　obtained；　Bewick；　by　cutting　white　lines　across　it　at　greater　or　lesser　intervals；　produced　gradations　of　shade；　from　the　absolute　black　of　the　block　to　the　lightest　tints。　　The　general　result　of　this　method　was　to　give　a　greater　depth　of　colouring　and　variety　to　the　engraving；　but　its　advantages　may　perhaps　be　best　understood　by　a　glance　at　the　background　of　the　〃Woodcock〃　on　the　following　page。
  Bewick's　first　work　of　any　importance　was　the　Gay's　〃Fables〃　of　1779。　　In　1784　he　did　another　series　of　〃Select　Fables。〃　　Neither　of　these　books；　however；　can　be　compared　with　the　〃General　History　of　Quadrupeds；〃　1790；　and　the　〃British　Land　and　Water　Birds；〃　1797　and　1804。　　The　illustrations　to　the　〃Quadrupeds〃　are　in　many　instances　excellent；　and　large　additions　were　made　to　them　in　subsequent　issues。　　But　in　this　collection　Bewick　laboured　to　a　great　extent　under　the　disadvantage　of　representing　animals　with　which　he　was　familiar　only　through　the